二语习得理论教程文件.ppt

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1、二语习得理论Differences in Learning L1&L2nA child or adult learning a second language is different from a child acquiring a first language in terms of both1)learner characteristicsand2)learning conditions2022/11/132 Theoretical Approaches to Language Acquisition 2022/11/136BehaviorismnSkinner:language beh

2、avior is the production of correct responses to stimuli through reinforcement.nFour characteristics of behaviorism:1)imitation,2)practice,3)reinforcement,and 4)habit information nLado(1964):CAA person learning an L2 starts off with the habits formed in the L1 and these habits interfere with the new

3、ones needed for the L2.2022/11/137American Structurism and BehaviorismnDominant theories in linguistics and psychology within the USA throughout the 1940s and 1950s.nIts psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.nThe goal of CA:to discover the problems that foreign langu

4、age students would encounter in the learning process.And to increase the efficiency in L2 teaching and testing.2022/11/138Negative TransfernLado proclaimed that most of the difficulties originated from the differences between L1 and L2.He believed that the more different the two languages are,the mo

5、re difficult learning would be,and by knowing this,we could predict what errors would appear.2022/11/139a strong and a weak form of CAnLado and his followers even provided the degree of differences between two languages.There existed a strong and a weak form of Contrastive Analysis(Wardhaugh 1970).T

6、he strong form claims that all L2 errors can be predicated by identifying the differences between the target language and the learners L1.The weak form of the hypothesis claims to be diagnostic.(To check where could be erroneous).2022/11/1310Contrastive Analysis(CA)nContrastive Analysis was rooted i

7、n the practical need to teach a L2 in the most effective way possible.Its psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.nRobert Lado:advocated the approach of Contrastive Analysis in his first Book,Linguistics Across Culture(1957)2022/11/1311BehaviorismnBehaviorism was often

8、 linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(CAH):It predicts that where there are similarities between the L1 and the target language,the learner will acquire target-language structures with ease;where there are differences,the learner will have difficulty.2022/11/1312More Definition of CA nCA:is

9、 an approach to the study of SLA which involve predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.n It was heavily influenced by theories which is dominant in linguistics and psychology within the USA throughout the 1940s and 1950s

10、.2022/11/1313BehaviorismnCriticisms about the CAH:Though a learners L1 influences the acquisition of an L2,1.Not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made.2.Many of the errors which learners make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.3.Some errors are similar across learners from a var

11、iety of L1 backgrounds.2022/11/1314BehaviorismnSummary:The L1 influence may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits,but a more subtle and complex process of identifying points of similarity,weighing the evidence in support of some particular feature,and even reflecting about whether a certa

12、in feature seems to belong in the structure of the L2.2022/11/1315InnatismnCompetence vs.Performance nUniversal Grammar(UG)in relation to second language developmentnKrashens“monitor model”2022/11/1316Innatism:Competence vs.Performance语言能力对语言运用nCompetence语言能力:It refers to the knowledge which underli

13、es our ability to use language.nPerformance语言运用:It refers to the way a person actually uses language in listening,speaking,reading,and writing.Performance is subject to variations due to inattention or fatigue whereas competence(at least for the mature native speaker)is more stable.2022/11/1317Innat

14、ism:Competence vs.PerformancenSLA(second language acquisition)researchers from the UG perspective are more interested in the language competence(i.e.,knowledge of complex syntax)of advanced learners rather than in the simple language of early stage learners.Their investigations often involve compari

15、ng the judgments of grammaticality（合乎语法性）made by L2 and L1 learners,rather than observations of actual language performance(i.e.,use of language).2022/11/1318Innatism:Universal GrammarnHow UG works in L2 development:Two different views-1)The nature and availability of UG in L2 acquisition is no diff

16、erent from that which is hypothesized to guide L1 learners.Adult L2 learners neither need nor benefit from error correction and metalinguistic information(元语言信息).These things change only the superficial appearance of language performance and do not affect the underlying competence of the new languag

17、e.2022/11/1319Innatism:Universal GrammarnHow UG works in L2 development:Two different views-2)UG may be present and available to L2 learners,but its exact nature has been altered by the prior acquisition of the first language.L2 learners need to be given some explicit information about what is not g

18、rammatical（不符合语法规则的）in the L2.Otherwise,they may assume that some structures of the L1 have equivalents in the L2 when,in fact,they do not.2022/11/1320Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe acquisition-learning hypothesisnThe monitor hypothesisnThe natural order hypothesisnThe input hypothesisnThe aff

19、ective filter hypothesis2022/11/1321Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe acquisition-learning hypothesis(1)nAcquisition:we acquire L2 knowledge as we are exposed to samples of the L2 which we understand with no conscious attention to language form.It is a subconscious and intuitive（凭直觉获知的）process.nL

20、earning:we learn the L2 via a conscious process of study and attention to form and rule learning.2022/11/1322Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)1.Krashen argues that“acquisition”is a more important process of constructing the system of a language than“learning”bec

21、ause fluency in L2 performance is due to what we have acquired,not what we have learned.2.Learning cannot turn into acquisition.Many learners may“know”rules but fail to apply them.Learners need to do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency.2022/11/1323Innatism:Krashen

22、s“monitor model”nThe monitor hypothesis(1)nThe acquiredsystem acts to initiate the speakers utterances and is responsible for fluency and intuitive judgments about correctness,whereas the learnedsystem acts only as a monitor,making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system has produced.20

23、22/11/1324Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe monitor hypothesis(2)nLearners use the monitor only when they are focused more on being correct than on what they have to say,when they have sufficient time to search their memory for the relevant rules,and when they actually know those rules.nSince kno

24、wing the rules only helps the speaker supplement what has been acquired,the focus of language teaching should be on creating conditions for acquisition rather than learning.2022/11/1325Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe monitor hypothesis(3)Criticisms:nIt is very difficult to show evidence of“moni

25、tor”use.It is impossible to determine what has been produced by the acquired system and what is the result of monitor use.nKrashens claim that language which is produced quickly and apparently spontaneously must have been acquired rather than learned leaves us with a somewhat circular definition.202

26、2/11/1326Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe natural order hypothesis(1)nL2 learners acquire the features of the TL in predictable sequences.Contrary to intuition,the rules which are easiest to state(and thus to learn)are not necessarily the first to be acquired.e.g.the rule for adding an s to thir

27、d person singular verbs in the present tense 2022/11/1327Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe natural order hypothesis(2)nThe natural order is independent of the order in which rules have been learned in language classes(based on Krashens studies of grammatical morphemes).nSubsequent research has co

28、nfirmed that learners pass through sequences or stages in L2 development.2022/11/1328Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe input hypothesis(1)The learner acquires language in only one way by exposure to comprehensibleinput.If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learners current le

29、vel of competence in the language(“i+1”),then both comprehension and acquisition will occur.2022/11/1329Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe input hypothesis(2)The comprehensible input(“i+1”)hypothesis appeals to intuition,but has not been substantiated by empirical studies.e.g.undirected pleasure r

30、eading as a source of comprehensible input.2022/11/1330Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”nThe affective filter hypothesis(1)n“Affect”refers to such things as motives,needs,attitudes,and emotional states.nThe“affective filter”is an imaginary barrier,which prevents learners from acquiring language from

31、the available input.nDepending on the learners state of mind or disposition,the filter limits what is noticed and what is acquired.A learner who is stressed,upset,anxious,self-conscious,or unmotivated may“filter out”input,making it unavailable for acquisition.2022/11/1331Innatism:Krashens“monitor mo

32、del”nThe affective filter hypothesis(2)nIt appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice.Teachers should help students to lower the affective filter in language learning.nIt also appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they f

33、elt stressed or uncomfortable.nHowever,it is difficult to be sure that affective factors cause the differences in language acquisition.2022/11/1332Innatism:Krashens“monitor model”/“hypothesis/theory”nSummarynKrashens“monitor model”(i.e.,acquisition vs.learning,monitor,natural order,comprehensible in

34、put,and affective filter)has been very influential in supporting communicative language teaching(CLT),which focuses on using language for meaningful interaction and for accomplishing tasks,rather than on learning rules.nMost teachers and researchers see Krashens hypotheses intuitively appealing,but

35、those hypotheses are hard to be tested by empirical evidence.2022/11/1333Information processingnCognitive psychologists working in this model see L2 acquisition as the building up of knowledge systems that enables the learner to use the language automatically.nThey do not assume that there is a diff

36、erence between acquisition and learning.nTwo important models:attention-processing(noticing)model and restructuring Model2022/11/1334Information processingnAttention-processing(noticing)model:nIt is assumed that there is a limit to the amount of information a human can pay attention to and learn at

37、one time.Gradually,through experience and practice,learners become able to use certain parts of the language automatically.nAutomatic language performance may originate from intentional or conscious learning;i.e.,noticing(McLaughlin&Schmidt).nEverything we come to know about the language was first“n

38、oticed”consciously before we learn it.2022/11/1335Information processingnRestructuring Model:nSometimes things which we know and use automatically may not be explainable in terms of a gradual build-up of automaticity through practice.nThey seem rather to be based on the interaction of knowledge we a

39、lready have,or on the acquisition of new knowledge(without extensive practice)which fits into an existing system and causes it to be restructured.This can lead to a positive or negative outcome.e.g.“I saw”“I seed”or“I sawed”overapplying the general rule.2022/11/1336ConnectionismnConnectionists argue

40、 that what is innate is simply the ability to learn,not any specifically linguistic structure.nThey attribute greater importance to the role of the environment in language learning,and see the input as the principal source of linguistic knowledge.nEventually,a learner develops stronger mental connec

41、tions between the elements s/he has learned,and thus one situational or linguistic element will activate the other(s)in the learners mind.2022/11/1337ConnectionismnFindings of connectionist Research:nA learning mechanism can not only learn what it hears but can also generalize,even to the point of m

42、aking overgeneralization（过分概括）errors.nThese studies have dealt almost exclusively with the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes（词素）,that is,aspects of the language which innatists will grant may be acquired largely through memorization and simple generalization.2022/11/1338The Interac

43、tionist PositionnSLA takes place through conversational interaction(Hatch,Pica,and Long).nLong sees modified interaction as the necessary mechanism for the L2 acquisition.What learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other spe

44、akers.nResearch shows that native speakers consistently modify their speech in sustained conversation with non-native speakers.2022/11/1339The Interactionist PositionnThe relationship between modified interaction and SLA(Long):1.Interactional modification makes input comprehensible;2.Comprehensible

45、input promotes acquisition;Therefore,3.Interactional modification promotes acquisition.2022/11/1340The Interactionist PositionnModifiedinteraction involves linguistic simplifications and conversational modifications.nExamples of conversational modifications:elaboration,slower speech rate,gesture,add

46、itional contextual cues,comprehension checks,clarification requests,and self-repetition or paraphrase.nResearch has demonstrated that conversational adjustments can aid comprehension in the L2.2022/11/1341The Interactionist PositionnVygotskys sociocultural theorynLanguage development takes place in

47、the social interactions between individuals.nL2 learners advance to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and interact with speakers of the L2 who are more knowledgeable than they are(Lantolf).nA learner is capable to learn in the zone of proximal development(ZPD)when there is

48、support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor.2022/11/1342The Interactionist PositionnThe difference between Vygotskys socialcultural theory and other interactionist theories:2022/11/1343SummarynThere is no agreement on a“complete”theory of second language acquisition yet.nEach theoreti

49、cal framework has a different focus and its limitations.1.Behaviorism:emphasizing stimuli and responses,but ignoring the mental processes that are involved in learning.2.Innatism:innate LAD,based on intuitions3.Information processing and connectionism:involving controlled laboratory experiments wher

50、e human learning is similar to computer processing.4.Interactionist position:modification of interaction promotes language acquisition and development.2022/11/134445Theoretical Approaches toL1 AcquisitionnBehaviorism:Say what I saynInnatism:Its all in your mindnInteractionist/Developmentalperspectiv