病人的无意识心智.ppt

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1、病人的无意识心智 Still waters run deep.流静水深流静水深,人静心深人静心深 Where there is life,there is hope。有生命必有希望。有生命必有希望GeneralIntroductionTheMetacognitionApproachtotheDistinctionBetweenExplicitandImplicitCognitionandKnowledgeExplicit(Conscious)CognitionandKnowledgeConsciousNon-HumanOrganisms?WhenDoesHumanBecomeConscious

2、?Language,Consciousness,andSchizophreniaImplicit(Unconscious)CognitionandKnowledgeDissociationbetweenConsciousandUnconsciousCognitionandKnowledgeEvidenceforUnconsciousCognitionandKnowledgeExperimentalParadigmsforImplicitKnowledgeFigure1.Formulationofempiricalresearchconductedbypsychologists,asindica

3、tedbyArrows1,2,and3(seeNelson,1996).ExternalstimulusCriterionresponse(Objectiveassessment)Person“Ithink”(Introspection,Self-reports)123GeneralIntroduction ComtesCritiques:Introspection:unreliableComtesparadox Liar paradox Hegelsparadox Authority paradox Truth-value paradox“Thisssentencecontainsthree

4、eerrors.”Tarskistheoryoftruth(1956)Figure2.Illustrationofthehierarchicalorganizationofmeta-levelandobject-level,andthehypothesizedflowofinformationinmetacognition(Nelson,1996).MODEL OBJECT-LEVELMonitoringControlFlowofinformationMETA-LEVELMETA-LEVELOBJECT-LEVELControlMonitorConsciousCognitionUnconsci

5、ousCognitionInputFigure3.Ahumancognitivesystem.ConsciousCognitionandControlIntentionallearningConsciousmemory(e.g.,recall,recognition)ConsciousperceptionUnconsciousCognitionandControlvReflexivebehaviorvInstinctivebehaviorvVisceralcontrolvImplicitperception(e.g.,blindsight,agnosia,prosopagnosia)vSubl

6、iminalperceptionvUnconsciousmemoryandUnconsciouslearningvIncidentallearningvLatentlearningvAutomaticprocessingofmotororcognitiveskills病人的無意識心智v盲視（blindsight）（Weiskrantzetal.,1974;Weiskrantz,v1986,1990）e.g.PateintD.B.v視覺失認症（visualagnosia）（Humphreys&Riddoch,v1987;1993;Warrington,1984;1985）e.g.PatientG

7、.L.PatientH.J.A.v臉形失認症（prosopagnosia）（Bauer,1984）e.g.PatientL.F.v失憶症（anterogradeamnesia）（Warrington&vWeiskrantz,1970）EvolutionarilyoldstructuresandprocessesRobustnessofunconsciousperception,learning,andmemoryAgeanddevelopment-levelindependenceLowvariabilityacrossindividualsIQindependenceCommonalityo

8、fprocessacrossspeciesHypothesizedCharacteristicsofUnconsciousControl(Reber,1993)Explicit(Conscious)CognitionandKnowledgeConsciousNon-HumanOrganisms?WhenDoesHumanBecomeConscious?Language,Consciousness,andSchizophreniaCase 1:Sarahs problem solving(Premack&Woodruff,1978)Task:Wasshownaseriesofshortvideo

9、sofapersonstrugglingwithaproblem(e.g.,tryingtogetoutofalockedcage).Aftereachvideo,tochoosebetweentwostillphotographs,onephotographillustrateda“solutiontothevideoproblem(akey);theotherillustratedthesolutiontoanotherproblem.Results:Correctchoice.ConsciousNon-HumanOrganisms?Case 2:qMirror-guidedmarkedt

10、estsinchimps.,monkeys,gibbons,orangutan(Gallup,1970)qExhibitedbehaviors:self-directedactions,touchingthemark,self-recognition,self-awareness?Figure4.Theanimalmind.Case 3:DeceptionandtheMachiavellianhypothesis:Cananimalsdeliberatelybehaveinsuchawaysoastomisleadotheranimalsintoastateoffalsebelief(Whit

11、en&Byrne,1988).Evidence:Evidence1:Baboonsdeceptionforstealingmeatfromamalebaboon.Evidence2:Baboonsdeceptiontogroomayoungmale,thatisnottoleratedbythemaleleader.v1.Pain in InfantilevEarlyassumption:Youngbabiesfeellittleornopain.CircumcisionwithoutanaestheticBabiesuntilaweekortwoshowlittleresponsetosuc

12、hpotentiallypainfulstimuliaspinpricks.vRecentstudiesagreethatyoungbabiesdoshowmanyofthenon-verbalcomponentsoftheadulthumanresponsetopainfulstimuli,includingstresshormones.vFetusresponsesvPain-gatecontroltheoryWhenDoesHumanBecomeConscious?Action systemGate control systemTSGLSCentral control+-Figure5.

13、TheMelzackandWalltheoryofpainmechanisms.Thelarge-(L)andsmall-(S)diameterfibresprojecttothesubstantia gelatinosa(SG)andfirstcentraltransmission(T)cells.TheinhibitoryeffectexertedbySGontheafferentfibreterminalsisincreasedbyactivityinLfibresanddecreasedbyactivityinSfibres.Thecentralcontrolsystemisrepre

14、sentedbyalinerunningfromthelarge-fibresystemtothecentralmechanisms;thesemechanismsinturnprojectbacktothegatecontrolsystem.TheTcellsprojecttotheactionsystem+,excitation;-,inhibition.(FromMelzack,1993).2.Auditory and visual recognitionDeCasper&Spence(1986):AuditorymemoryPregnantmothersreadaloudashort(

15、three-minute)childrensstorydaily-thesameoneeverydayforthelastsixweeksoftheirpregnancy.Withintwodaysofbirth,theirbabiesfittedwithearphones,throughwhichtheywouldheareitherthesamestoryoranotherstory(readbytheirmothers),weretestedforrecognitionofthestory.Theirspontaneousrateofsuckinganipplewasrecorded.R

16、esults:Eightbabies:increasedinrateforfamiliarstoryanddecreasedinrateforanewstory.Eightbabies:decreasedforfamiliarstoryandincreasedforthenewstory.Babiesalteredtheirsuckingratessoastolistentothefamiliarstoryinpreferencetothenewstory.Fagan(1973):VisualmemorySubjects:babiesof5-monthold.Results:Babiespre

17、ferredtolookatnewratherthanfamiliarpicturesupto48hourslater.Pascalis&Deschonen(1994)Babiesof3-dayoldpreferredlookingatnewphotographs(offemalefaces)tolookingatfamiliarphotographs.3.Learning to do thingsRovee-Collier&Shyi(1992)Babiesoftwo-mntholdcouldlearntokickforwatchingmobilesandmaintaineditover24h

18、rs.Six-mnth-oldsshowedretentionovertwowks.4.The transition to talking:Toddlers recallQuestion:Babiescanretainmemoriesforavarietyoftypesofexperienceoverrelativelylongperiods.Why,then,dowenotrecallthoseexperiencesinadulthood?Possibility:Thedevelopmentoflanguagesomehowmakesthesememoriesinaccessible.Con

19、clusionthusfar:Infantscanstoreinformationaboutawidevarietyofevents,andthisinformationisnotlostinthetransitionfrompreverbaltoverballife.Butproofofconsciousrecall?5.Conscious recall?Howe,Courage,&Peterson(1994)Subjects:patientsattheemergencyroomofahospital.Task:Theywereaskedsixmonthslaterwhattheyremem

20、beredoftheirincident.e.g.,KB,18mnthsandnotyettalking,caughtafishboneinherthroat.Thebonewasremovedatthehospital.Sixmnthslater,KBwastalking,butcouldnotrecallinwordsanythingabuttheincident.However,shedidpickoutaphotographoftheemergency-roomdoctorwhoremovedthebone,andrefusedtoeatfishsincetheincident.Lei

21、chtman&Ceci(1993)Eight-mnth-oldinfantswereshownapuppetwhichhadmittens.Theywererewardedtoobtainatreatbyremovingoneofthemittens.Afterextensivepracticeovera3-wkperiod,thepuppetwasremovedforfourmnths.Whenthepuppetappearedagain,thesubjectsdisplayedlittleinterestinit,butwhentheydidplaywithit,theytouchedal

22、mostexclusivelythemittenthathadconcealedthetreat,ignoringtheothermitten.6.Memory after language developsHoweetal.(1994)Childrenwhowereverbalattheagetheincidentoccurred(from27mnthsold)showedclearevidenceofconsciousrecallsixmonthslater.7.Language and recall Itseemsthatinfantswhohavenotlearnedtotalkdon

23、otconsciouslyrecalltheeventsofheirlives,whereaschildren,whocantalk,recall.Ifthisaccountisvalid,theninfantileamnesiaisnotcausedbyablockofrepressionofinfantmemories,butbythefailuretoformconsciousmemoriespreverbally.8.The Pillemer&White(1989)two memory systemsOneoperatesthroughoutlife,andcannotbeaccess

24、edintentionally,butonlybycontextualcues.Theotherdependsonlanguage,andcanbeaccessedintentionally.Itisthislattersystemthatisusedforconsciousrecall.Itisbecausethesystemdoesnotdevelopuntillanguagedevelopsthatwecannotrecallinfantlife.9.Development of the self-conceptHowe&Courage(1993)Rejectedthenotionoft

25、womemorysystems,butproposedinsteadthatconsciousepisodicdevelopsastheconceptofselfdevelops.IfIhavenonotionthat“I”amaparticularperson,howcouldIformmemoriesabout“my”experiences?Questionthen:Whendoetheself-conceptemerge?Childrenbegintousethepronouns“I”and“me”justbeforetheageoftwo(18mnths),followed,amnth

26、ortwolater,by“you”.Atthatage,theypassthemarktest;begintodiscriminatebetweenvideorecordingsofthemselvesandofotherchildrenofthesameage.leftrightanfrontbackFigure6.Theinteractionbetweentheleftandrighthemispheres.Islanguagethekey?PETstudiesonthetaskofverbalgenerationinsuperiortemporalgyrus(STG)(Fritheta

27、l.,1995)NormalparticipantsSTGwasactivatedbylisteningtospokenlanguage,butinhibitedduringself-generatedspeech.SchizophrenicpatientsNosuchinhibitionwasrecordedduringPETscanning,suggestingthatself-monitoringofspeechsignalsisakeycomponentofthedisorder.Implications:Schizophreniaisadisorderoftheinteraction

28、betweenthetwohemispheres;thereisafailuretoestablishunequivocaldominance.Normalinter-hemisphericintegration:Inhibitionofanyawarenessbytheverballyexpressivehemisphericconsciousnessthatitactuallyreceivesandsendsthoughts,intentions,andfeelingsfromandtoanotherconsciousness.Inschizophreniathisintegrationi

29、sdisturbedwiththeresultthattheLHconsciousnessbecomesawareofaninfluencefroman“external”force,whichinfactistheRH.Implicit(Unconscious)CognitionandKnowledgeDissociationbetweenConsciousandUnconsciousCognitionandKnowledgeEvidenceforUnconsciousCognitionandKnowledgeExperimentalParadigmsforImplicitLearning

30、Implicit(Unconscious)CognitionandKnowledgeImplicitcognitionandknowledgeoccurswhentheprocessesbywhichinformationisacquiredandthecontentofthisinformationareunavailabletoonesconsciousawareness.Directtests:Directtestsencourageperformanceonthebasisofconsciouslyavailableinformation.Indirecttests:Indirectt

31、estsavoidencouragingtheuseofconsciousknowledge.Implicitlearningisdemonstratedwhenindirecttestsreflectknowledgeacquisitionanddirecttestsdonot.Figure7.Numberofarticlespublishedwithimplicitmemoryandimplicitlearningintheirtitles.:在辭典中共出現在辭典中共出現107107次，第次，第1 1筆到第筆到第3535筆：筆：1.【北口馬】2.【保馬法】3.【保甲法】4.【保久乳】5.【

32、保險法】6.【保養廠】7.【板起臉】8.【補給品】9.【跑解馬】10.【跑野馬】11.【普米語】12.【馬口鐵】13.【馬起臉】14.【馬祖島】15.【馬尾港】16.【馬尾藻】17.【滿可以】18.【莽古歹莽古歹】19.【米老鼠】20.【母老虎】21.【反打瓦反打瓦】22.【打粉底】23.【打底稿】24.【打體己】25.【打緊板】26.【打槳桿】27.【打診法】28.【打水鼓】29.【打野火】30.【膽小鬼】31.【點點點點點點】32.【點檢所】33.【討老腳】34.【討野火】35.【李總統府】36.【打軟腿兒】文章要分段，將材料依順序排列，使內容有組織，讀起來才為條理清楚。由很多段落組成一篇

33、完整的文章，惡些段落，就叫做文章的結構，依照古人的說法，一篇文章的結構應該要有下列四段，每一段都有不同的功用。起：文章的開頭。承：開頭之後，敘述所要寫的材料。轉：材料的擴充、轉向、舉例等，是分量較多的地方。合：文章的結束。文章的結構文章要分成許多段，一段接一段，把要說的話說完，才會成為一篇好的作文。三年級的作文，通常分成三段或四段即可。以下分開說明：（一）分成三段來寫文章，把內容分成先說、再說、後說三部份，如果要寫的內容比較多，可以把再說分成幾個小節來寫。例如：第六課的課文分成三段，其中的第二段分成三個小節來寫。（二）分成四段來寫的文章，把內容分成先說、再說、進一步說、後說四部份。例如：第二課

34、和第四課的課文，都是分成四段來寫的文章。文章有好的分段，讀起來清楚明白，就會是一篇好文章。說說看：第一課桃花開了的課文，如果分成三段，你要怎麼分？如果分成四段，你要怎麼分？如何作文Figure8.Stimulusmaterialusedintheageestimationstudy(Isthisman25or35yearsold?).Notethatthequalityofthepictureisdeliberatelylowtohidedetails(textureofskinetc.).Figure9.Stimulusmaterialusedintheageestimationstudy(

35、Isthiswomanmorethan25yearsold?)Notethatthequalityofthepictureisdeliberatelylowtohidedetails(textureofskinetc.).Two Types of Language Learning:Conscious and Unconscious Krashen(1981)Firstlanguage:Acquisition,mostlyunconsciousSecondlanguage:Learning,conscious Figure10.ExamplesofChinesecharacters,pseud

36、ocharacters,andnoncharacters.CHARACTER PSEUDOCHARACTER NONCHARACTER ImplicitprocessesinmedicaldiagnosisTheacuteabdominalpainperforatedulcer,appendicitis,bowelobstruction,dyspepsia,diverticulardisease,cholecystitis,pancreatitis,orrenalcolic.Diagnosisinmotormechanics,systemanalyst,footballcoachesThree

37、possibilities:Basicscienceknowledgeisonlyimportantforbeginners.Asexpertisedevelops,clinicalachmenreplacesbiomedicalknowledgeinmedicaldecisionmaking.Expertsdonotforgetbiomedicalknowledge,theyjustdouseitindiagnosticdecisionmaking.Basicscienceknowledgebecomesimplicitandisusedautomatically;itisimplicit,

38、expertcliniciansarenotawarethattheyareusingthisknowledgeand,therefore,theydonotverbalizeit.Theparadoxofexperts:Thereisamajorbottleneckintheprocessofexpertsimpartingtheirexpertisetoothers.Thereisadifferencebetweenwhatexpertssaytheydoandwhattheyactuallydo;theyareoftenunawareofthenatureoftheirsecrets(e

39、xpertise).Theyactuallydonotknowhowtheydowhattheydo.Methodologicalproblems:Interviewwithexperts(knowledgeengineering;MYCIN,NEOMYCIN).Theexpertisemaybecontext-sensitive,andsowillnotbeaccessedintheinterviewsituations.ExperimentalParadigmsforImplicitLearningArtificialgrammarlearningLearninginthecontrolo

40、fdynamicsystemsSerial(sequence)learningCovariationlearningFigure11.Artificialgrammarlearning(Reber,1967,1969,1976;Figure11.Artificialgrammarlearning(Reber,1967,1969,1976;Reber&Allen,1978).Reber&Allen,1978).Testing stimuli(grammatical)PTTTVPS PVVTXSS1S2S3S4S5S6PTXVXSVinoutPSTLearning stimuliPVPXVPSTS

41、SXXVPSTSXS(not grammatical)PVTVVTSSXXVSSPTTPSFigure12.Covariationlearning(Lewicki,Hill,&Sasaki,1989)Materials:Simulatedbrainscans(i.e.,patternsofrandomlydistributedcomputergraphicscharactersresemblingtheshapeofabrain).Task:Learningphase:Foreachbrainscan,subjectswereinformedwhetheritwasformanintellig

42、entoranonintelligentperson.Thescansofthetwogroupsdifferedonlyinatinydetail:Acertaingraphicscharacteroccurredinthescansofonegroupwithafrequencyof13%andthatoftheothergroupwithafrequencyof17%.Testphase:Subjectshadtoratetheintelligenceofnewbrainscans.Results:Subjectsperformedcorrectly,buttheywerenotawar

43、eofthecovariation.Learninginthecontrolofdynamicsystem(Berry&Broadbent,1984)Task:Productionofastimulatedsugarfactory.Independentvariable:Numberofworkersemployed(W).Dependentvariable:Theamountofsugarproduced(P)Pt=2Wt-Pt1+rtwheretisthenumberoftrial,rtistherandomcomponentatt.Task:Participantswererequire

44、dtochoosetheWinsuchawaythattheproductionreachedandmaintainaprescribedtargetvalue.Seriallearningtasks(Nissen&Bullemer,19870)12 34 Regularsequence:10sequentiallocationswerecyclicallyrepeatede.g.4231324321/4231324321/4231324321Ransomsequence:thelocationswererandomlypermuted,withnopositionappearingtwiceinarow.事件記憶（短期）事件記憶（短期）注意與辨識感覺訊息的登錄知識系統表徵整合認知策略系統學習與記憶思考與解題自我監控系統監測控制有限的訊息傳遞系統一個人類認知系統的模式一個人類認知系統的模式