胡壮麟语言学教程笔记精华副本 .doc

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1、胡壮麟语言学教程学习指导目 录目录 3第一部分 各章节提纲笔记 4Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 4Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 8Chapter 3 Lexicon14Chapter 4 Syntax21Chapter 5 Meaning26Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society35Chapter 8 Language in Use38Chapter 9 Language and Literature44Chapte

2、r 10 Language and Computer49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics59第二部分 重点章节测试题67Test One Invitations to Linguistics67Test Two Phonetics and Phonology70Test Three Morphology73Test Four Syntax76Test Five Semantics79Test Six Pragmat

3、ics82Test Seven Language, Culture and Society85Test Eight Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics88第三部分 测试题参考答案91参考书目 100第一部分 各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsWhy study language?1.Language is very essential to human beings.2.In language there are many things we should know.3.For further

4、 understanding, we need to study language scientifically.What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which ca

5、n distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primar

6、y level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any

7、 definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of

8、 conversation.Origin of language1.The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2.The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and

9、 joy which gradually developed into language.3.The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1.Referential: to conve

10、y message and information;2.Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3.Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4.Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5.Phatic: to establish communion with others;6.Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words an

11、d meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1.Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2.Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social

12、 and personal relationships;3.Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least

13、 seven functions:InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.PerformativeThe p

14、erformative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most pow

15、erful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maint

16、ain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language

17、 to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the la

18、nguage of all human beings.Main branches of linguisticsPhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of spee

19、ch sounds and the shape of syllables.MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes.SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. SemanticsSe

20、mantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.PsycholinguisticsPsycho

21、linguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social char

22、acteristics of its users.Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human

23、language.Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rule

24、s, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Dont say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing h

25、ow things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescriptio

26、n.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time would be synchron

27、ic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the

28、 changes that have taken place in its historical development.Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational co

29、nstraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguisti

30、cs.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite n

31、umber of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to s

32、tudy competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each indiv

33、idual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech SoundsSpeech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It i

34、ncludes three main areas:1.Articulatory phonetics the study of the production of speech sounds2.Acoustic phonetics the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3.Auditory phonetics the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonet

35、ics.Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcriptio

36、nSegments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of

37、the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.ConsonantsConsonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

38、completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1.the actual

39、relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2.where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).Manners of articulation1.Stop/plosive:

40、A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, p, b, t, d, k, g are stops and m, n, N are nasal stops.2.Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is cause

41、d by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, f, v, W, T, s, z, F, V, h are fricatives.3.(Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without t

42、he vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes w, r, j.4.Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one o

43、r both sides of the blockage. l is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.Places of articulation1.Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2.Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front

44、 teeth.3.Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4.Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5.Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6.Retrof

45、lex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7.Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8.Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9.Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10.Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with