语言交际能力复习过程.ppt

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1、语言交际能力Chapter 6 PragmaticsDefinitions of pragmatics1.Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterance have meanings in situations.Leech 2.Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the meanings and effects which come from the use of language in particular situations.网络词典

2、网络词典wikipedia3.Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.Yule4.Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social interaction and the effects of our choice on others.Crystal 19875.There is a distinction between a hearers knowledge of the world.Blakem

3、ore 1992Leech是否涉及说话人或听话人是否涉及说话人的意图或听话人的理解是否涉及语境是否涉及通过使用语言所实施的行为有一个满足，则是语用学范畴有一个满足，则是语用学范畴thescopeofpragmaticstudy:DeixisSpeechactsIndirectlanguageConversationPolitenessCross-culturalcommunicationPresuppositionSome basic notions in Pragmatics:ContextPragmaticsvs.semanticsSentencemeaningvs.utteranceme

4、aningCorrectnessvs.appropriatenessContextContext-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasthelanguage,whathasbeensaidbefore,theworldknowledgeingeneral,situation(time,place,etc.),theknowledgeaboutthespeakerandthehearer,etc.语

5、境的研究内容语境的研究内容A、何兆熊主张何兆熊主张（见新编语用学概论第（见新编语用学概论第21页）页）：对所使用的语言的掌握 言内语境言内语境 对语言交际上文的了解百科全书式的知识（常识）语境语境 背景知识背景知识 背景特定文化的会话规则交际的时间地点交际的主题交际的正式程度 言外语境言外语境 情景知识情景知识 交际参与者的相互关系 相互知识相互知识（参与者的互相了解）B、索振羽的主张、索振羽的主张 上下文语境上下文语境 口语的前言后语口语的前言后语 书面语的上下文书面语的上下文情景语境情景语境民族文化传统语境民族文化传统语境语境语境 时间时间 地点地点 话题话题 场合场合 交际参与者交际参与

6、者历史文化背景历史文化背景社会规范和习俗社会规范和习俗价值观价值观上下文语境例（1 1）妈妈：谁动了桌子上的蛋糕？妈妈：谁动了桌子上的蛋糕？玲玲：弟弟刚才在桌子旁边站着。玲玲：弟弟刚才在桌子旁边站着。玲玲答非所问，言外之意是：可能是弟弟玲玲答非所问，言外之意是：可能是弟弟动了桌子上的蛋糕动了桌子上的蛋糕（2 2）陈：你们学院那个小李老师好像是个不错的小伙陈：你们学院那个小李老师好像是个不错的小伙子，他还没结婚吧？子，他还没结婚吧？杨：嗯，他杨：嗯，他他老家在四川农村，他是老大，他老家在四川农村，他是老大，下面还有几个弟弟妹妹。下面还有几个弟弟妹妹。小李是个单身汉，有小李是个单身汉，有 份不错的

7、工作，收入也很份不错的工作，收入也很高。高。陈女士想介绍小李和朋友的女儿相识，她向小陈女士想介绍小李和朋友的女儿相识，她向小李的同事杨女士探消息。杨女士答非所问，李的同事杨女士探消息。杨女士答非所问，转而提转而提供了关于小李的家庭背景的情况。言外之意：小李供了关于小李的家庭背景的情况。言外之意：小李未婚而家庭负担重，他不太可能成为一个都市女孩未婚而家庭负担重，他不太可能成为一个都市女孩儿心目中理想丈夫的候选人。儿心目中理想丈夫的候选人。情境语境例（1 1）声音不正常，你能把它打开看看吗？声音不正常，你能把它打开看看吗？某星期天在家里妻子递给丈夫一把螺丝某星期天在家里妻子递给丈夫一把螺丝刀并指着

8、洗衣机的后盖对他说此语，此时刀并指着洗衣机的后盖对他说此语，此时“打开打开”的意思就不会是的意思就不会是“开启洗衣机开开启洗衣机开关关，而应该是，而应该是“打开机器的的后盖察看打开机器的的后盖察看一下其内部情况一下其内部情况”的意思。的意思。（2 2）宁克为叶桑拉开门，又伸手挡在车门顶上，唯恐叶桑）宁克为叶桑拉开门，又伸手挡在车门顶上，唯恐叶桑碰了头。叶桑的心态倏然间改变。她从容地靠在软软的车碰了头。叶桑的心态倏然间改变。她从容地靠在软软的车座里，雍容华贵地望着车窗外一掠而过的都市景致。宁克座里，雍容华贵地望着车窗外一掠而过的都市景致。宁克从另一边上的车。他坐下片刻后便轻轻地把自己的手从另一边

9、上的车。他坐下片刻后便轻轻地把自己的手 放放在叶桑的手背上。叶桑没有动。只心说故事开始？一会儿，在叶桑的手背上。叶桑没有动。只心说故事开始？一会儿，宁克便又用自己的手将叶桑的手握住。叶桑感到她的手心宁克便又用自己的手将叶桑的手握住。叶桑感到她的手心出汗了。心里生出些渴望，同时也生出些拒绝。出汗了。心里生出些渴望，同时也生出些拒绝。叶桑说：叶桑说：“你一定听说过你一定听说过得寸进尺得寸进尺”这个词吧这个词吧?”?”宁克没作声，宁克没作声，只是把手拿开了。只是把手拿开了。叶桑说叶桑说“这就对了。这就对了。”事前宁克与叶桑的妹妹谈过恋爱，所以在他对叶桑有事前宁克与叶桑的妹妹谈过恋爱，所以在他对叶桑有

10、过分行为时，叶桑所说的过分行为时，叶桑所说的“得寸进尺得寸进尺”这个词，表面上指这个词，表面上指的是从的是从“摸手摸手”到到“握手握手”的演变，及对异性在身体触摸的演变，及对异性在身体触摸上的上的“演进演进”，有，有“性骚扰性骚扰”的味道，实际上在说的味道，实际上在说“你你找了我妹妹又来找我太黑心找了我妹妹又来找我太黑心”。民族文化传统语境例（1 1）她的男朋友是个不三不四的人，快去劝她的男朋友是个不三不四的人，快去劝劝她，还是早点分手的好。劝她，还是早点分手的好。在数字上面，中美的文化差异在感悟上在数字上面，中美的文化差异在感悟上可能就会体现出较大的差异。人们常用可能就会体现出较大的差异。人

11、们常用“不三不四不三不四”来表示某人不务正业、品行有来表示某人不务正业、品行有问题或不正派，但是如果用洋泾浜英语来问题或不正派，但是如果用洋泾浜英语来直译（不三不四直译（不三不四no three no four no three no four），），老外肯定会一头雾水，从而闹笑话。老外肯定会一头雾水，从而闹笑话。（2 2）他俩把生米煮成了熟饭，使她父母再也他俩把生米煮成了熟饭，使她父母再也不好反对他俩的婚姻了。不好反对他俩的婚姻了。“生米煮成了熟饭生米煮成了熟饭”，是俗语，指事情，是俗语，指事情（多为不理想的）已经发展到难以改变的（多为不理想的）已经发展到难以改变的地步，或既成事实，难以改变

12、，在此语句地步，或既成事实，难以改变，在此语句中指两人已经发生了两性关系。对她父母中指两人已经发生了两性关系。对她父母再也不好反对，中国人很容易理解，欧美再也不好反对，中国人很容易理解，欧美人则很难理解。人则很难理解。（3 3）女儿：爸爸你的菜烧的真好吃。女儿：爸爸你的菜烧的真好吃。父亲：哪里哪里，差远了。父亲：哪里哪里，差远了。A A：你文章写得真好！：你文章写得真好！B B：别开玩笑了，好什么呀？我都不：别开玩笑了，好什么呀？我都不好意思拿出来。好意思拿出来。A A：You have written a good You have written a good article.articl

13、e.(你写了一篇好文章。你写了一篇好文章。)B B：Thanks Thanks！(谢谢！）谢谢！）（4 4）初，赵高为郎中令，所杀及报私怨众多，恐）初，赵高为郎中令，所杀及报私怨众多，恐大臣入朝奏事毁恶之，乃说二世曰：大臣入朝奏事毁恶之，乃说二世曰：“天子所以天子所以贵者，但以闻声，群臣莫得见其面，故号曰朕。贵者，但以闻声，群臣莫得见其面，故号曰朕。且且陛下富于春秋，未必尽通诸事，陛下富于春秋，未必尽通诸事，今坐朝廷，谴今坐朝廷，谴举有不当者，则见短于大臣，非所以示神明于天举有不当者，则见短于大臣，非所以示神明于天下也。下也。且陛下深拱禁中，与臣及侍中习法者待事，且陛下深拱禁中，与臣及侍中习法

14、者待事，事来有以揆之。如此则大臣不敢奏疑事，天下称事来有以揆之。如此则大臣不敢奏疑事，天下称圣主矣。圣主矣。”二世用其计，乃不坐朝廷见大臣，居二世用其计，乃不坐朝廷见大臣，居禁中。赵高常待中用事，事皆决于赵高。（史记禁中。赵高常待中用事，事皆决于赵高。（史记李斯列传）李斯列传）中国人的旧传统，忌讳说人年轻，因中国人的旧传统，忌讳说人年轻，因为年轻往往意味着不懂事、阅历浅。为年轻往往意味着不懂事、阅历浅。故李斯不说故李斯不说“皇帝年轻皇帝年轻”，而说，而说“陛陛下富于春秋下富于春秋”。（5）我是财务省的官僚。）我是财务省的官僚。官僚：官员，官吏。在长期的自民党统治下，官僚：官员，官吏。在长期的自

15、民党统治下，日本形成了政治官僚与行业的三角关系，由代表日本形成了政治官僚与行业的三角关系，由代表行业的国会议员主导的趋势政治横行，另一方面行业的国会议员主导的趋势政治横行，另一方面政策从制定到调整全部由官僚决定被认为理所当政策从制定到调整全部由官僚决定被认为理所当然。然。一位日本官僚在对美国人自我介绍时说此语，一位日本官僚在对美国人自我介绍时说此语，意思是自己是个精英。然而官僚在英语中是个贬意思是自己是个精英。然而官僚在英语中是个贬义词，在美国一般认为官僚是形式主义与权威主义词，在美国一般认为官僚是形式主义与权威主义的代名词，故听者会忍不住发笑。义的代名词，故听者会忍不住发笑。（6 6）甲：不

16、自由毋宁死！甲：不自由毋宁死！乙：愚蠢！留得青山在，不怕有柴烧。乙：愚蠢！留得青山在，不怕有柴烧。一法国留学生的婚姻受到他中国女友父一法国留学生的婚姻受到他中国女友父母的反对时，他和女友的对话。反映出不母的反对时，他和女友的对话。反映出不同的价值观。同的价值观。exercise请说一说以下话语出现的语境条件：请说一说以下话语出现的语境条件：（1 1）打折降价都是骗人的。）打折降价都是骗人的。（2 2）我昨天不是通知过你吗？）我昨天不是通知过你吗？（3 3）我的手机没电了，急死人啦！）我的手机没电了，急死人啦！（4 4）每人只能买两张，不好意思。）每人只能买两张，不好意思。Pragmatics

17、vs.semanticsSemantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,all

18、dependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitationSemantics&Pragmatics句法学是双价的句法学是双价的;语用学是三价的。语用学是三价的。双价的：双价的：A意指意指B三价的：说话人通过三价的：说话人通过A意指意指BDog 意指意指“一种犬科哺乳的动物一种犬科哺乳的动物”说话人通过说话人通过“dog”意指意指“小心！有狗小心！有狗”Donkey 亦可称亦可称ass“Janet！Donkeys!”Leech 1981年提出年提出-Sentencemeani

19、ng:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;Correspondto:What does X mean?-utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;Correspondto:What did you mean by X?Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning 恭喜你恭喜你语义学家关心的是这句话的意思：向某个人表语义学家关心的是这句话的意思：向某个人表示祝贺

20、。示祝贺。语用学家则将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，语用学家则将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，“你你”又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下向又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下向“你你”道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至是泄愤？是泄愤？For example,“The bag is heavy”can meanabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning;BAG(BEHEAVY)Utterancemeaning:anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;thespeaker

21、isdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.Cor

22、rectness vs.appropriateness*“John play golf”-grammaticallyincorrect;?“Golf played John”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-cul

23、turalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)DeixisDeixisisreferencebymeansofanexpressionwhoseinterpretationisrelativetothe(

24、usually)extralinguisticcontextoftheutterance,suchaswhoisspeakingthetimeorplaceofspeakingthegesturesofthespeaker,orthecurrentlocationinthediscourse.指示的类别指示的类别(types of deixis)人称指示人称指示(person deixis)时间指示时间指示(time deixis)方位指示方位指示(place deixis)篇章指示篇章指示(discourse deixis)社会指示社会指示(social deixis)Persondeixi

25、spersondeixis:we,you,him,itetc.e.g.“whatarewesupposedtodo?”thepronoun“WE”hasdifferentmeaningindifferentsituations.Ifthesentenceisusedbyastudenttoaskateacher,“we”referstothespeakeronly,notincludingthelistener,theteacher,itscalled“we-exclusiveofaddressee”.Ifthesentenceissaidbyastudenttoaskanotherstude

26、ntaboutwhattheteacherhasaskedthemtodo,“we”referstoboththespeakerandthelistener,itscalled“we-inclusiveofaddressee”e.g.“youhavetofinishthisexercise”.“you”isuncertainwithouttheknowledgeofsituationandparticipants.Ifthesentenceisusedbyateachertoastudent,“you”referstothestudent,ifsentenceisusedbyamotherto

27、herdaughter,“you”referstothedaughter.Timedeixis(时间指示)Timedeixisismainlyperformedbytimeadverbialslikenow,then,afternoon,week,month,ortheirnamesMonday,January,togetherwiththis,that,last,next.具体的年月日如：1999年8月7日。不是语用学的研究范围。e.g.“Ihopeyouregoingtodowellthisyear.”Ifthesentenceissaidonthefirstdayofayear,“thi

28、syear”meansawholecalendaryear,ifthesentenceissaidonthefirstdayofanewsemester,“thisyear”meanstheschoolyear,ifthesentenceissaidononesbirthday,“thisyear”meanstheperiodbeginningfromthisyearsbirthdaytothebirthdaynextyear.e.g.“doitnow”.(“now”meansatpresenttime)“hestudiesinBeijingnow”.(“now”meanstheperiodf

29、rompresenttosometimelater)Placedeixis(方位指示方位指示)placedeixis:here,there,left,righte.g.thecorrectunderstandingofthesentence“itsonyourleft”dependsonthelistenersstandingplace.说说话话人人 therehereThat thisThere hereGotakeComebring方位词方位词非指示性非指示性 five kilometers from the center of the city to the east of China

30、指示性指示性 Bob is the man to the left of Mark.篇章指示篇章指示指示代词指示代词 this 和和that在篇章中用以表示某一话语和上文之间的在篇章中用以表示某一话语和上文之间的语义关系的一些词语和短语：语义关系的一些词语和短语：but,therefore,to the contrary,still,well,besides,above all用于时间指示的一些词语：用于时间指示的一些词语：last,next,preceding,following,previousThe last sentence,the following sectionHalliday

31、和和Hasan 把把 this ,that,next 称为连称为连接（接（conjunction）社会指示社会指示Social deixis is the use of deictic terms for indicating social status of the participants in discourse,and their relations determined thereupon.So it is mainly the terms used in person deixis that are used here again,namely,personal pronouns

32、and terms of address.语言活动参与者的社会面目。语言活动参与者的社会面目。说话人与听话人之间相对的社说话人与听话人之间相对的社会地位。会地位。说话人与所谈及的人之间的相说话人与所谈及的人之间的相对的社会地位。对的社会地位。杂谈社会指示杂谈社会指示您，贵姓，令尊，大作，玉照您，贵姓，令尊，大作，玉照Whether you call somebody by the official title,the full name,the first name,or the nickname,reflects the social distance between you two.Sir

33、 David brown,Mr.brown,Dr.brown,Professor brown.Speech act theorySpeechacttheorywasfirstputforwardbyaphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50sof20thcentury.andstatesthatthespeakersusethelanguagetoperformaction.Itshowthevariousfunctionofsentencesandexplainthenatureoflinguisticcommunicationfromthephilosophical

34、view.E.g.“wouldyoupassmethesalt?”thisisaninterrogativesentenceaccordingtothetraditionalgrammar.Yetitsfunctionisnotlimitedto“question”,thisquestioncanshowothermeaningsdependingonthecontext.Itcanbearequestorademand.Ifwestudylanguagenotfromtheformofit,butfromthefunctions,wethinkthatspeakersusethelangua

35、getoperformaction.Thisistosay,speechisact.AustinsmodelofspeechactsTraditionallyphilosopherswereinterestedinthetruth-valueofsentences.Theybelievedthatastatementwasusedeithertostateafactortodescribeastateofaffairs.However,Austinexpresseddoubtaboutthisassumptionbecausehefoundsomesentenceswerenotusedtos

36、tateortodescribe,rathertheywereusedbythespeakertodosomething.Thushemadeadistinctionbetweenwhathecalled“constatives”and“performatives”.Two types of utterancesConstatives(叙述句)-statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andar

37、enotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“It is raining outside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.Some Examples of Performatives“I do”“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I give and beque

38、ath my watch to my brother.”“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”“I declare the meeting open.”Austins new model of speech acts-AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.The locutionary act-an act

39、of saying something,i.e.an act of making a meaningful utterance(literal meaning of an utterance);The illocutionary act-an act performed in saying something:in saying X,I was doing Y(the intention of the speaker while speaking).The perlocutionary act-an act performed as a result of saying something:b

40、y saying X and doing Y,I did Z.For example,“It is cold in here.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoree

41、xample:“You have left the door wide open.”Note:Of the three acts,what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act.becausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeakersintention,It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.andlinguistsare

42、mostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:-(thetelephonerings)-H:That the phone.(1)-W:Im in the bathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecauset

43、hespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“all right,Ill answer it.”Searles classification of speech act

44、s(1969)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives-Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.I think the film is moving.Im certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.Directiv

45、es-Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window,please.Your money or your life!Commissives-Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.Expressives-Expressingthespeakerspsychologica

46、lstateaboutsomething,e.g.Im sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.Declarations-Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note:(1)Alltheact

47、sthatbelongtothesamecategoryshare the same purpose but differ in their strength orforce,e.g.I guess/am sure/swear he is the murderer.Note:(2)the same act can be expressed in variousgrammaticalforms.E.g.Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Could you open the door

48、,please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!Principle of conversation(Paul Grice)Cooperativeprinciple(CP)-AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Make your conversational contr

49、ibution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CPThemaximofquality-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Themaximofquantity-Make your co

50、ntribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.-Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Themaximofrelation-Be relevant(make your contribution relevant).Themaximofmanner-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly.Convers