英语科技论文写作方法与教程(南开大学).ppt

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1、Scientific writing and presentationProf.Mark BartlamCollege of Life Sciences,Nankai UniversityE-mail:Tel:23502351Course outlineLecture 7+8:How to write a scientific paper.How to plan and layout your paper;Writing a good abstract and introduction;Methods;Results,discussion and conclusions;Authorships

2、 and acknowledgments;Getting feedback from others.Experimental processSection of paperWhat did I do in a nutshell?AbstractWhat is the problem?IntroductionHow did I solve the problem?Materials and MethodsWhat did I find out?ResultsWhat does it mean?DiscussionWho helped me out?AcknowledgementsWhose wo

3、rk did I refer to?ReferencesExtra informationSupplementary informationHow to plan and layout your paperFollow the standard IMRAD format:IntroductionMethodsResultsAndDiscussionHow to plan and layout your paperThe rigid IMRAD structure makes scientific writing easier.Plan each section carefullyHow to

4、plan and layout your paperEach main section should begin with a heading.When your paper reports on more than one experiment,use subheadings to organize your presentation.How to plan and layout your papere.g.:Materials and MethodsCloning and expression.Purification and crystallization.Structure deter

5、mination.Section headingSubheadingSubheadingSubheadingReview articlesReview articles dont follow the IMRAD structure.You are reviewing several studies together,not a single study or experiment.Start with the introduction,then break down into headings/subheadings according to your field of study.Stra

6、tegyChoose which strategy works best for you(tortoise vs.hare).May be better to start with section that has the most constraints:Materials or Methods,or Results.Alternatively,prepare figures and tables first,then use them to write the Results section.IntroductionWhat is the problem,and why should an

7、yone care?Deal with these questions briefly,interestingly,and as simply as possible.A well-written introduction should persuade colleagues or non-specialists to begin reading the paper.IntroductionFirst,state the general field of interest.Concisely present what is already known about the subject of

8、your research.Reference the most important publications in primary journals.Dont mention everything unless you are writing a review article or thesis.IntroductionSecond,present others findings that will be challenged or expanded.Explain how you are hoping to extend or modify what is already known or

9、 believed.Provide support for your argument.IntroductionThird,specify the question the paper addresses,and how it does so.This sentence is often phrased in the form of a hypothesis.e.g.“The purpose of this study was to.”or“We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the.”Indicate your exper

10、imental approach.Point out what is new and important about your work.When appropriate,briefly summarize the answer(s)you found.IntroductionAim to divide your Introduction as follows:Background:1-3 paragraphs.Findings to be challenged:1-2 paragraphs.Question addressed by the paper:1 paragraph.Materia

11、ls and MethodsMay have several names:Materials and MethodsExperimental ProceduresExperimental Design,Protocol and Procedure.Materials and MethodsMay have several names:Materials and MethodsExperimental ProceduresExperimental Design,Protocol and Procedure.Materials and MethodsBegin by listing the sup

12、plies that were necessary for your work.Include animate materials(experimental animals,plants)and inanimate materials(chemicals,reagents).If necessary,explicitly明确地 note that use of animals conformed to遵照 legal requirements for the country where research was conducted.Materials and MethodsNext,speci

13、fy what was done and for what purpose.Common to proceed in chronological order.Alternatively,parallel the sequence in which you present results.Conclude with a discussion of statistical procedures used.Materials and MethodsInclude the right amount of detail.too much reads like a laboratory manual.to

14、o little and no one can determine what you actually did.Readers(trained investigator with experience)should be able to repeat your experiments.Materials and MethodsRefer to examples published in your chosen journal.Materials and MethodsIn the U.S.,studies should be conducted in accordance with Good

15、Laboratory Practice(GLP)guidelines(Benson and Boege,2002)Requires preparation of standard operating procedures for all aspects of a project.Referring to these procedures can be helpful.Materials and MethodsIf following a widely known method,name the principles on which it is based and cite the origi

16、nal publication(or recent textbooks).If you modify a method,describe the changes and reference the rest.Only describe a method in full if you have employed a new process or technique.Materials and MethodsUse subheadings to separate different types of experiments.Write as if you were verbally describ

17、ing the conduct of the experiment.You may use the active voice主动语态,although this section requires more use of third person,passive constructions than others.Avoid use of the first person in this section.Remember to use the past tense throughout-the work being reported is done and was performed in th

18、e past.红色表示不理解ResultsWhat was found or seen?Decide on a logical order for presentation.Present results that have a bearing on与有关 the question you are examining.Dont interpret your results unless your journal combines Results and Discussion.如果你的文章没有把结果和讨论合并的话，不要在结果中解释你 的结果.红色表示不理解PatternBasisCategori

19、calGrouping of like itemsChronologicalTime sequenceSpatialPhysical arrangement of entitiesFunctionalHow parts workImportanceIn order of decreasing consequenceProblem-solutionsProblem,possible answersSpecificityGeneral to particular(or vice versa)ComplexitySimple to complexPro and conBoth sides of an

20、 issue or decisionCausalityCause and effectDeductiveConclusion first,then backgroundInductiveIndividual facts,leading to conclusionResultsTables and figures are an integral part of the results section.Dont use text to repeat information contained in tables or figures.Readers can see data for themsel

21、ves.Point out salient features特色 and note relationships between various results.ResultsSome problems to avoid:Do not reiterate重申 each value from a Figure or Table-only the key result or trends that each conveys.Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure-this is considered redundant and

22、a waste of space and energy.Decide which format best shows the result and go with it.Do not report raw data 原始数据values when they can be summarized as means,percents,etc.ResultsNumber figures and tables according to the order in which they appear in the text.e.g.First Table 1,then Table 2.e.g.First F

23、igure 1,then Figure 2,Figure 3.If using figure panels,label the parts in a logical order:e.g.First Figure 1a,then Figure 1b.Discussion and ConclusionsWhat do your findings mean?Why are they important?Discussion and Conclusions exist to answer these questions.Often combined with each other.Sometimes

24、combined with Results as well.Discussion and ConclusionsInterpret your results against a background of existing knowledge.Explain what is new in your work,and why it matters.Discuss both the limitations and implications of your results.Relate your observations to other relevant studies.Discussion an

25、d ConclusionsState new hypotheses(clearly labeled as such)when they are warranted.Include recommendations推荐,建议 when appropriate.Discussion and ConclusionsWatch for symptoms of megalomania夸大狂.Avoid exaggerated or extravagant claims for your work.Carefully distinguish between facts and speculation.Be

26、wary谨慎的 about extrapolating外推 your results to other species or conditions.Discussion and ConclusionsAvoid pointing out shortcomings of another investigators report(natural human tendency).Indicate possible next steps to resolve any apparent conflicts.Admit anomalies in your results.Discuss possible

27、errors or limitations in your methods and assumptions.Discussion and ConclusionsDont offer too many alternative hypotheses.As a general rule,the discussion should never be the longest section in a paper.AcknowledgementsUsually appear between the Discussion and Reference section.Include any substanti

28、al help from organizations or individuals.Include funding bodies here(or on the title page if specified by the journal).AcknowledgementsConcisely thank those who went out of their way to help,and describe their contribution.Do not list people who did not contribute directly to the reported work.Do n

29、ot list people who did no more than their routine laboratory,secretarial or iffice work.ReferencesInclude all references you cited(specifically referred to)in the text,tables and figures.For your first draft,use the name-and-year(Harvard)system for citations:e.g.(Bartlam&Rao,2009),(Bartlam et al.,20

30、05)Easier to compile a final reference list from names than from numbers.ReferencesThere are hundreds of different literature reference styles.Each journal has a specific literature reference style or format.Using programs such as EndNote can help you apply proper formatting to your final draft.Refe

31、rencesBe aware of reference limits imposed by some journals.Check the Instructions to Authors carefully.One common restriction is 40 references for full articles or 10 for brief communications.Abstracts and summariesAbstracts usually inserted right after the title page in the completed document.Thes

32、e are easier to prepare when your document is finished.First draft may help you to stay focused持续专注.Abstracts and summariesSome journals use the term“summary”to describe abstracts.Generally,a summary is not the same as an abstract.An abstract is an abbreviated version of the paper.A summary restates

33、 the main findings and conclusions of the paper.AbstractsAbstracts come in several varieties.Informative abstracts include some data and are commonly used with documents that describe original research.Address same questions as the main text of the paper,but briefly and without supporting tables and

34、 figures.AbstractsIndicative abstracts(also called descriptive or topical)contain general statements about the subjects covered.Often used for review articles or books.Can be created by turning the table of contents into sentences.AbstractsBoth informative and indicative abstracts are typically limi

35、ted to between 100 and 250 words.Different points are emphasized in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the text itself.Generally written as a single paragraph.AbstractsStructured abstracts generally longer-up to 400 words.Series of points grouped below headings:Objective目标Design设计Results结果Co

36、nclusions结论Relevance红色表示不理解AbstractsStaying within an abstracts word count is a challenge for almost every writer.Be as brief and specific as possible.Write complete sentences that logically follow one another.Use the third person,active voice,and the past tense.AbstractsWrite the abstract so that i

37、t can stand on its own merits优点.Many readers of the abstract will never see your entire text.Avoid citing others work here.Avoid unfamiliar terms,acronyms,abbreviations缩写词 or symbols符号.Never introduce information in the abstract not covered in the paper.AbstractsStrategy:The abstract,by definition,m

38、ust be written last since it will summarize the paper.To begin composing your abstract,take whole sentences or key phrases from each section and put them in a sequence which summarizes the paper.Then revise or add words to make it cohesive and clear.AbstractsAn abstract should contain:The question y

39、ou propose(from Introduction);The methods used(from Methods);The major findings(from Results);A brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions(from Discussion).AbstractsHow do you know when you have enough information in your abstract?Imagine that you are another researcher doing an study sim

40、ilar to the one you are reporting.If your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access,would you be happy with the information presented there?KeywordsDefine keywords(around 5)to help others understand what your research is about and to search for your paper.Keywords can include:The orga

41、nism,gene or protein you are studying;The method or technique you are using;Gene family,protein family or enzyme classification;.TitleEvery document needs a rough working title for identification purpose.A working title is rarely suitable for the final paper.Is is interesting,concise and informative

42、?TitlePay attention to your journals Instructions to Authors for title length,capitalization style and general form.Declarative title:written as a sentence or fragment that includes what the paper saysDescriptive title:neutral title describing what the paper covers.TitleDeclarative:Selective elimina

43、tion of messenger RNA prevents an incidence of untimely meiosis.Descriptive:Mechanism of DNA translocation in a replicative hexameric helicase.TitleMost journals prefer short titles,typically not over 100 characters,including spaces between words.Typically 10-12 words.Delete trivial phrases(“Notes o

44、n.”,“A study of.”).If possible,give the key result of the study in the title for more impact.TitlePoor:A Study of Chipmunk Muscle Tissue Ion Channel Amino Acid Activation Parameters.Better:Amino Acid Activation of Ion Channels in Chipmunk Muscle Tissue.TitleMost editors frown upon fanciful titles.Tw

45、o-part titles(main title and subtitle)also frowned upon.Titles ending with a question mark are seldom acceptable.TitleRisky choices:German Saxifrage Pollens are Superior to Those in AustriaDoes Saxifraga Pollen in Germany Resemble That in Austria?Pollen Between a Rock and a Hard Place:German and Aus

46、trian SaxifragesTitleAcceptable:Pollen Morphology of German and Austrian Saxifraga SpeciesAuthorshipsAuthorship:All contributors should receive credit for their contributions to the research project.Science is now much more collaborative,many more authors on a single paper-need some sort of order.Au

47、thorshipsAuthor contributions include:Designing experiments;Performing experiments;Analyzing results;Writing the paper;Providing reagents,chemicals or other materials.AuthorshipsDiscuss authorship before starting the first draftReach agreement on authorship as soon as possible;Disagreements over aut

48、horship can cause hard feelings and wreck friendships.AuthorshipsList and order of authors should determine responsibility.Generally,the first author should write the paper.Designate the first author/best writer as the coordinator.Assign coordinator the responsibility for the outline,introduction,ab

49、stract and conclusions.AuthorshipsDivide responsibility for other parts(Methods,Results,Tables and Figures)to remaining authors.Set clear deadlines for each step of the writing.Communicate often and clearly.Getting feedback from othersUse“peer review”to get feedback from colleagues to improve your p

50、aper.Getting feedback from othersRemember to give positive comments where a writer has done well;Turn negative feedback into productive feedback.Getting feedback from othersWhen reviewing,it is always important to note a papers strengths,so that the author will not lose these in the process of revis