第四章天然放射性元素化学优秀PPT.ppt
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1、第四章天然放射性元素化学第一页,本课件共有58页vPractically all natural materials contain radioactive nuclides,though usually in such low concentrations that they can be detected only by very sensitive analysis.This is true for water(rain water,rivers,lakes,sea),rocks and soil,and all living matter,as well as for structur
2、es on natural raw materials except where great care has resulted in use of anon-radioactive material.The radionuclides in our environment can be divided into(i)those formed from cosmic radiation,(ii)those with lifetimes comparable to the age of the earth,(iii)those that are part of the natural decay
3、 chains beginning with thorium and uranium,and(iv)those introduced in nature by modern techniques.vSources can be categorized as:(i)cosmogenic宇生放射性的宇生放射性的,(ii)and(iii)primordial原生放射性的原生放射性的,and(iv)anthropogenic 人类活动产生的人类活动产生的.第二页,本课件共有58页Cosmogenic radionuclidesvCosmic irradiation of the atmosphere
4、produces neutrons and protons which react with N2,O2,Ar,etc.resulting in the production of radioactive nuclides.These nuclides are produced at constant rates and brought to the earth surface by rain water.Equilibrium is assumed to be established between the production rate and the mean residence tim
5、e of these radionuclides interrestrial reservoirs(the atmosphere,the sea,lakes,soil,plants,etc)leading to constant specific radioactivities of the elements in each reservoir.第三页,本课件共有58页Cosmogenic radionuclidesvIf a reservoir is closed from the environment,its specific radioactivity decreases.This c
6、an be used to determine exposure times of meteorites to cosmic radiation(and the constancy of the cosmic radiation field,using 81Kr),dating marine sediments(using 10Be,26Al),groundwater(36Cl),glacial ice(10Be),dead biological materials(14C),etc.The shorter-lived cosmogenic radionuclides have been us
7、ed as natural tracers for atmospheric mixing and precipitation processes(e.g.39Cl or 38S).Only T and 14C are of sufficient importance to deserve further discussion.第四页,本课件共有58页第五页,本课件共有58页第六页,本课件共有58页TritiumvSatellite measurements have shown that the earth receives some of the tritium ejected from t
8、he sun.Much larger amounts are formed in the atmosphere through nuclear reactions;e.g.,between fast neutrons and nitrogen atomsvThe yield for this reaction is about 2 500 atoms tritium per second per square meter of the earths surface;the global inventory is therefore about 1.3 1018 Bq.Tritium has a
9、 half-life of 12.33 y,decaying by weak-emission to 3He.第七页,本课件共有58页TritiumvIt is rapidly incorporated in water,entering the global hydrological cycle.The average residence time in the atmosphere is about 2 y which is a small fraction of the half-life,as once the tritiated water reaches the lower tro
10、posphere,it rains out in 5-20 days.If we define 1 TU(Tritium Unit)as 1 tritium atom per 1018 hydrogen atoms,1 TU corresponds to 118 Bq/m3.Before the advent of nuclear energy,surface waters contained 2-8 TU(an average value of 3.5 TU is commonly used).The tritium content in water now commonly is of t
11、he order 20-40 TU.Rainwater contains between 4 and 25 TU,lower at the equatorial zone and increasing with latitude.第八页,本课件共有58页TritiumvTritium is also a product in the nuclear energy cycle,some of which is released to the atmosphere and some to the hydrosphere.The emissions differ between reactor ty
12、pes(usually in the order HWR PWR BWR)and is a function of the energy production.Assuming the annual releases to be 40 TBq/GWe(Giga Watt electricity)from an average power plant and 600 TBq/GWe from a typical reprocessing plant,the annual global injection of tritium in the environment is estimated to
13、10 PBq in 1992.Though this is a small fraction of the natural production,it causes local increases.第九页,本课件共有58页TritiumvThe hydrogen bomb tests conducted in the atmosphere during the decade of the 1950s andearly 1960s injected large amounts of tritium into the geosphere;2.6 1020 Bq up to the end of t
14、he tests in 1962.This considerably exceeds the natural production inventory.vBefore 1952(first hydrogen bomb tests)the tritium content could be used to date water(i.e.determine when it became isolated from contact with the atmosphere).This was very useful e.g.for determining ice ages.However,due to
15、the much larger content of anthropogenic tritium presently,this is no longer a useful technique for such dating.vTritium in concentrations as low as 1 TU can be measured in low background proportional counters,and,after isotope enrichment(e.g.by electrolysis of alkaline water,by which tritium is enr
16、iched in the remainder),down to 0.01 TU.For very low concentrations mass spectrometry is preferred.第十页,本课件共有58页14-carbonv14C is produced in the atmosphere by a variety of reactions,the most important being between thermalized neutrons from cosmic radiation and nitrogen atoms:vThis reaction occurs wi
17、th a yield of approximately 22 000 atoms 14C formed per s and m2 of the earths surface;the global annual production rate is 1 PBq,and global inventory 8500 PBq(corresponding to 75 tons).Of this amount 140 PBq remain in the atmosphere while the rest is incorporated in terrestrial material.All living
18、material(incl.body tissue)has a 14C concentration of 227 Bq/kg.The half-life of 14C is 5715 y;it decays by soft-emission(Emax 158 keV).第十一页,本课件共有58页14-carbonv14C is also formed by reaction in nuclear tests.From these 220 PBq is assumed to have been injected into the atmosphere up to 1990.This 14C co
19、mes to equilibrium with other atmospheric carbon(CO2)in 12 years.Some 14C,about 18 TBq/GWe per year,is also released from nuclear power plants(mainly from HWR).The global atmospheric value is 300 TBq/y.vThe combustion of fossil fuel adds CO2,which is almost free of 14C,to the atmosphere,thus reducin
20、g the specific activity(the dilution was about 3%for the period 1900-1970).Taking all anthropogenic sources into account,a global average specific activity of modern carbon is now 13.56 0.07 dpm/g C.第十二页,本课件共有58页Primordial radionuclides1.Very long-lived nuclides lighter than leadvAs the detection te
21、chnique for radioactivity has been refined,a number of long-lived radionuclides have been discovered in nature.The lightest have been mentioned.The heavier ones,not belonging to the natural radioactive decay series of uranium and thorium,are listed in Table 5.2.50V is the nuclide of lowest elemental
22、 specific activity(0.0001 Bq/g)while the highest are 87Rb and 187Re(each 900 Bq/g).As our ability to make reliable measurements of low activities increases,the number of elements between potassium K and lead Pb with radioactive isotopes in nature can be expected to increase.第十三页,本课件共有58页第十四页,本课件共有58
23、页Primordial radionuclidesv由于这些核素的寿命特别长,他们肯定是在太阳系和地球形成时(甚至更早)形由于这些核素的寿命特别长,他们肯定是在太阳系和地球形成时(甚至更早)形成的。当地壳固化时,这些核素夹杂在岩石中。随着他们的衰变,衰变产物积聚成的。当地壳固化时,这些核素夹杂在岩石中。随着他们的衰变,衰变产物积聚在封闭的岩石环境中。通过测量母核和子核,根据其半衰期就可以计算出某个环在封闭的岩石环境中。通过测量母核和子核,根据其半衰期就可以计算出某个环境(例如:一块岩石的形成)存在的时间。这是境(例如:一块岩石的形成)存在的时间。这是核计年核计年nuclear dating(也
24、被称为(也被称为“放射性时钟放射性时钟radioactive clock”)的基础,)的基础,5.2中的核素几乎都可以用于实现这个目的。中的核素几乎都可以用于实现这个目的。5.8中将讨论中将讨论K-Ar和和Rb-Sr计年系统。计年系统。v仔细观察这些天然长寿命核素的衰变,其中某些显示出仔细观察这些天然长寿命核素的衰变,其中某些显示出短衰变系短衰变系short decay series,例如:,例如:152Gd148Sm144Nd140Ce和和190Pt186Os182W。以铀和钍同位素为起始核的重元。以铀和钍同位素为起始核的重元素衰变系称为素衰变系称为长衰变系长衰变系long decay se
25、ries。第十五页,本课件共有58页Primordial radionuclides2.Element in the natural radioactive decay series天然衰变系天然衰变系天然放射性元素是指自然界中存在的放射性元素,它们是天然放射性元素是指自然界中存在的放射性元素,它们是8484PoPo、8585AtAt、8686RnRn、8787FrFr、8888RaRa、8989AcAc、9090ThTh、9191PaPa和和9292U U等九个元素。他们主要来源于前等九个元素。他们主要来源于前面提到的三个衰变系。面提到的三个衰变系。ThTh系系U U系系锕系锕系第十六页,本
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