02Chapter 2_sound.ppt

《02Chapter 2_sound.ppt》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《02Chapter 2_sound.ppt（98页珍藏版）》请在淘文阁 - 分享文档赚钱的网站上搜索。

1、Chapter Two Speech Soundsn nAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds,but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.n nWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.n nPhonetics studies

2、how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.n nArticulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.n nAcoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.n nPerceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.n nP

3、honology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.n nIt aims to discover the principles that govern the It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages,and to way sounds are organized in languages,and to explain the variations that oc

4、cur.explain the variations that occur.n nIn phonology we normally begin by analyzing an In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language,say English,in order to individual language,say English,in order to determine its determine its phonological structurephonological structure,i.e.

5、which,i.e.which sound units are used and how they are put together.sound units are used and how they are put together.n nThen we compare the properties of sound systems Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses in different languages in order

6、to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,and ultimately we aim to discover the rules them,and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.that underlie the sound pattern

7、s of all languages.1.How speech sounds are made1.1 Speech organsPosition of the vocal folds:voicelessPosition of the vocal folds:voicing(initial&the widest aperture)Position of the vocal folds:glottal stop1.2 The IPAn nIn 1886,the Phonetic Teachers Association was inaugurated by a small group of lan

8、guage teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods.n nIt was changed to its present title of the It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Association(IPA)in (IPA)i

9、n 1897.1897.n nOne of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.n nThe idea of establishing a The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabetphonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish was first proposed

10、 by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto grammarian and phonetician Otto JespersenJespersen (1860-1943)in 1886,and(1860-1943)in 1886,and n nthe first version of the the first version of the International Phonetic International Phonetic AlphabetAlphabet(the (the IPA chartIPA chart)was published

11、 in)was published in August 1888.August 1888.n nIts main principles were that n nthere should be a separate letter for each there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound,and distinctive sound,and n nthat the same symbol should be used for that that the same symbol should be used for t

12、hat sound in any language in which it appears.sound in any language in which it appears.n nThe alphabet was to consist of as many Roman The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible,using new letters alphabet letters as possible,using new letters and diacritics only when

13、absolutely necessary.and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.n nThese principles continue to be followed today.n nThe InternationalPhonetic Alphabet(Revised to 2005)2.Consonants and vowels n nConsonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract,or by a narrowing which is so marked that air

14、cannot escape without producing audible friction.n nBy contrast,a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.n nThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.n nAs there is no obstruction o

15、f air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.2.1 Consonants n nIn the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved.n nFor example,the initial sound in For example,the initial sound in badbad involves involves bo

16、th lips and its final segment involves the blade both lips and its final segment involves the blade(or the tip)of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.(or the tip)of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.n nThe categories of consonant,therefore,are established on the basis of several factors.n nThe manner

17、of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:n nthe articulators may close off the oral tract for the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;an instant or a relatively long period;n nthey may narrow the space considerably;or t

18、hey may narrow the space considerably;or n nthey may simply modify the shape of the tract they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.by approaching each other.nStop(or Plosive)nOral&NasalnFricativen(Median)ApproximantnLateral(Approximant)nTrillnTap or FlapnAffricaten nTh

19、e place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.n nPractically consonants may be produced at any Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.place between the lips and the vocal folds.n nEleven places of articulation are distinguishe

20、d on the IPA chart:n nBilabialn nLabiodentaln nDentaln nAlveolarn nPostalveolarn nRetroflexn nPalataln nVelarn nUvularn nPharyngealn nGlottal2.2 Vowels n nCardinal Vowels,as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart,are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined,fixed and unchanging,intended

21、 to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.Jones:An Outline of English Phonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:Englishn nThe problematic area is that the initial sound in hot gives little turbulence,depending on how forcefully it is said,and in yet and wet th

22、e initial segments are obviously vowels.n nTo get out of this problem,the usual solution is To get out of this problem,the usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two nor consonants but midway

23、 between the two categories.For this purpose,the term categories.For this purpose,the term semi-semi-vowelvowel is often used.is often used.n nLanguages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an

24、 audible change of quality.n nThe former are known as The former are known as purepure or or monophthongmonophthong vowelsvowels and the latter,and the latter,vowel glidesvowel glides.n nIf a single movement of the tongue is involved,the glides are called diphthongs.n n n nA double movement produces

25、 a triphthong,which is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third,all produced rapidly and without interruption.n nThey are really diphthongs followed by the They are really diphthongs followed by the schwaschwa ,found in English words like,found in English words like wirewire wawa and an

26、d tower tower tata.2.3 The sounds of English n nReceived Pronunciation(RP)n nGeneral American(GA)n nEnglish consonantsn nThe consonants of English can be described in the following manner:n npvoiceless bilabial stoppvoiceless bilabial stopn nbvoiced bilabial stopbvoiced bilabial stopn nsvoiceless al

27、veolar fricativesvoiceless alveolar fricativen nzvoiced alveolar fricativezvoiced alveolar fricativeEnglish vowelsn nThe description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:n nthe height of tongue raising(the height of tongue raising(highhigh,midmid,lowlow););n nthe position of th

28、e highest part of the tongue the position of the highest part of the tongue(frontfront,centralcentral,backback););n nthe length or the length or tensenesstenseness of the vowel(of the vowel(tensetense vs.vs.laxlax or or longlong vs.vs.shortshort),and),and n nlip-roundinglip-rounding(roundedrounded v

29、s.vs.unroundedunrounded).).n nWe can now describe the English vowels in this way:n n high front tense unrounded vowel high front tense unrounded voweln n high back lax rounded vowel high back lax rounded voweln n mid central lax unrounded vowel mid central lax unrounded voweln n low back lax rounded

30、 vowel low back lax rounded vowel3.From phonetics to phonologyn nSpeech is a continuous process,so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps.Rather,sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.n nFor example,For example,mapmap,lamblamb.

31、3.1 Coarticulationn nWhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved,we call the process coarticulation.n nIf the sound becomes more like the following If the sound becomes more like the following sound,as in the case of sound,as in the case of lamblamb,it is known as,it is known as

32、 anticipatory coarticulationanticipatory coarticulation.n nIf the sound shows the influence of the If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound,it is preceding sound,it is perseverative perseverative coarticulationcoarticulation,as is the case of,as is the case of mapmap.n nThe fact that

33、the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization.n nTo indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol add a diacritic to the top of the symbol,as,as .n np is aspirated i

34、n peak and unaspirated in speak.n nThis aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the indicated by the diacriticdiacritic h h,as p,as ph h,whereas,whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as the unaspirated counterpart is transcri

35、bed as p.p.n nWhen we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription,it is called a broad transcription.n nThe use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.n nBoth are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets .3.2 Phoneme

36、s n nPhonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.n nPhoneticians are concerned with how sounds Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are

37、interested in the patterning of phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.variations.n nCrystal:Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning o

38、f a word or phrase,whereas other sounds do not.n nMinimal pairs testMinimal pairs testn nPhonemesPhonemes n nThe word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast:the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.n nBy sele

39、cting one type of sound instead of By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another we can distinguish one word from another.another.n nLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.n nIn English,the distinction between aspirated In English,the dis

40、tinction between aspirated pph h and unaspirated p is not and unaspirated p is not phonemicphonemic.n nIn Chinese,however,the distinction between In Chinese,however,the distinction between/p/and/p/p/and/ph h/is phonemic./is phonemic.n nBy convention,phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant l

41、ines(/)while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets().n nIn phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions In phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions.represent the broad transcriptions.3.3 Allophones n np,ph are two different phones and are variants of t

42、he phoneme/p/.Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.n nIn this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context:n np occurs after s while pp occurs after s while ph h occurs in other occurs in other places.pl

43、aces./p/p/s _ ph elsewheren nThis phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation.n nVelarization:clear l and dark l/_ V /V _n nThink about tell and telling!n nPhonetic similarity:the allophones of a phoneme must bear some p

44、honetic resemblance.n nFree variants and free variation4.Phonological processes,phonological rules and distinctive features 4.1 Assimilationn nNasalization,dentalization,and velarization are all instances of assimilation,a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neig

45、hboring sound.n nIf a following sound is influencing a preceding If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound,we call it sound,we call it regressive assimilationregressive assimilation.n nThe converse process,in which a preceding The converse process,in which a preceding sound is influencin

46、g a following sound,is sound is influencing a following sound,is known as known as progressive assimilationprogressive assimilation.English Fricative Devoicingn n/v/f /z/s etc.n nvoiced fricative voiceless/_ voicelessn nNasalization rule:-nasal +nasal/_+nasaln nDentalization rule:-dental dental/_ de

47、ntaln nVelarization rule:-velar +velar/_+velar4.2 Epenthesis,rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition n na hotel,a boy,a use,a wagon,a big man,a yellow rug,a white housen nan apple,an honor,an orange curtain,an old lady n nEpenthesis(Insertion)Rule:Plurals in Englishn na.The appears after voiceless

48、 sounds.n nb.The appears after voiced sounds.n nc.The appears after sibilants.n n/voice,C _ (Devoicing)n n /+sibilant _ (Epenthesis)Rule orderingn nThe Elsewhere ConditionThe more specific rule applies first.4.3 Distinctive features n nThe idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Ja

49、cobson(1896-1982)in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds.n nSince then several versions have been Since then several versions have been suggestedsuggested.n nSome of the major distinctions include consonan

50、tal,sonorant,nasal and voiced.n nThe feature consonantal can distinguish between The feature consonantal can distinguish between consonants and vowels,so all consonants are consonants and vowels,so all consonants are+consonantal and all vowels consonantal.+consonantal and all vowels consonantal.n ns