语言学第四章chapter.ppt

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1、英语语言学：第4章 Chapter 4 Syntax 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章outline4.1 Introduction4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Gram

2、mar 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.1 Introduction Syntax:study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words.Difference between morphology and syntaxMorphology:the internal structure of words Syntax:the combination of words 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Syntactic rules(1)a.The hun

3、ter fears the cries of the blackbirds.b.The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.(2)a.Jack looked up the word.b.Jack looked the word up.(3)*Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.Conclusion:The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning.Every sentence is a sequence of wo

4、rds but not every sequence of words is a sentence.Sentence formation has rules,so that we have well/ill formed or(un)grammatical sentences.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.2 Word Classes Nouns are words used to refer to people,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomena and abstract ideas as if they w

5、ere all things.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectives are words that describe the thing,quality,state or action which a noun refers to.beautiful,redVerbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the“things”in events.run,walk,seem 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章A

6、dverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb,an adjective,another adverb,or a sentence,and which answers the questions introduced by how,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time,place and other connec

7、tions involving actions and things.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.Articles,Exclamations,Numerals河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章The definitions above are useful for ident

8、ifying most forms,but they are never completely accurate.A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes.For example,a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article(a,an and the)and can take inflections for possessive(-s)and plural(-s).Of course,not all noun

9、s(eg.information and mud)have all these characteristics.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Phrase structure rulesRepresentation(通过词性表征句法通过词性表征句法):The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art+N +V+Art+N+Prep+Art +NThe rules which govern the structure of phrases are known as phrase structure rules or rewrite ru

10、les.Such rules allow for the generation of grammatical sentences in a language.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.3 The Prescriptive Approach Definition:An approach taken by some grammarians,mainly in eighteenth-century England,who lay down rules for the correct or“proper”use of English by following Latin.河南大学外

11、语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章(a)You must not split infinitives.(b)You must not end a sentence with a preposition.To boldly go.To go boldly.Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with.(funny)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.4 The Descriptive Approach Definition:An approach taken throughout the 20th century which

12、attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting samples.Various techniques may be employed.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.4.1 Structural analysis A descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames,which can be se

13、ntences with empty slots in them.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）(4)The _ makes a lot of noise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)I heard a _ yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章(6)_ makes a lot of noise.(noun phrases:it,the car,a dog,Peter,a new car,the scholar with an American

14、 accent)(7)I hear _ yesterday.(noun phrases:it,the car,a dog,Peter,a new car,the scholar with an American accent)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法直接成分分析法)Language is linear and hierarchical.We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest leve

15、l,that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion.The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called

16、 immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis(IC).河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Immediate constituent ana

17、lysis(IC analysis)has two ways of representation:Tree diagram brackets河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Tree diagram(8)The man bought a car.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章BracketsBrackets can also be used but are arguably less easy to read.(9)a.the man bought a car b.the man bought a car c.the man bought a car d.the man b

18、ought a car河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Merit:Solving Disambiguityold men and women 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar(成分结构语法成分结构语法)A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency,which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.The main principle is labeling and bra

19、cketing based on the idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions or can themselves be made up of smaller parts.(binary and verb-centered)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章 Tree diagram BinaryVerb-centered河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Generative Rules(早期转换语法的概念早期转换语法的概念短语结构语法短语结构语法)The syntax of a lang

20、uage is then seen as a set of rules which generate sentences in that language.SNPVPVPVtr.NPNPArtNVtr.buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.Nman,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Arta,an,the 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章(12)a.The man bought a car.b.The man sold a car.c.The woman repaired the bicycle.Sentences generated：河

21、南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章More complex rules There is a large number of sentences in English that such rules cannot produce.This set of rules has very limited generative power.The above rules only deal with simple noun phrases and transitive verbs.They do not allow us to deal with any part of the verb str

22、ucture such as tense,modals or aspect.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Sentences generated：(13)a.The man sells the car in the garage.b.The woman washes the bicycle in the street.c.The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Merit:Solving Disambiguity(14)The boy repairs the

23、 bicycle in the house.in the house around the corner(Recursion,Recursiveness递归性递归性)Mary helped George.Cathy thought Mary helped George.John said Cathy thought Mary helped George.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章A childrens rhyme:This is the house that Jack built.This is the cat that lived in the house that Jack

24、 built.This is the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the woman that married the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.河南大学

25、外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Some problems of CSG:A.Lexical selection restriction With simple constituent structure rules,any noun can be introduced in a combination with any verb.This does not happen in natural language.We cannot say:(15)*The belief washed an apple.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章B.Discontinuousness (16)

26、The boy cleaned the room up.(17)The student looked the word up in the dictionary.C.Relation between sentences that seem to be closely related structurally and semantically (18)a.Brian hit George b.George was hit by Brian.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Noam Chomsky,(1928-)，founder of Transformational Grammar4.

27、6 Transformational Grammar河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Grammar:there in Transformational Grammar,is in the broadest way,a theory of grammar including phonology and semantics.A linguistic theoryWe shall only focus on the syntactic aspect of transformational grammar.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章I.Classical theory Thr

28、ee parts:phrase structure rulestransformational rules,morphophonemic rules.SNP+VP;simple active declarative kernel sentences (短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章A transformation rule is a sequence of symbols which could be rewritten

29、conventionally as different sequence.passive transformation NP1AuxVNP2NP2 AuxbeenVbyNP1(19)a.The boy has repaired the bicycle.b.The bicycle has been repaired by the boy.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules.Their function is to provide

30、the correct morphological shape to the various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description.(公式公式-言语表达言语表达)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章 Tree diagram 河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章II.Standard theory competence and performance(Chapter 1)deep structure and surface structureThe de

31、ep structure of a sentence is its most basic structure both semantically and syntactically.The surface structure is the form that people can actually say.It is fairly arbitrary.Two superficially similar structures may convey a substantially different message.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章deep structure and s

32、urface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:(20)a.John is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.In the first sentence John is doing the pleasing,and in the latter he is on the receiving end.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings,for they have quite d

33、ifferent deep structures.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Standard theory河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Different stages of generative grammar III.Extended Standard TheoryIV.Revised Extended Standard TheoryV.Government and Binding Theory(GB)Principles and Parameters Approach (P&P)VI.Minimalist Program(MP)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言

34、学：第4章Other branches of GG:Throughout the development of transformational grammar,Chomsky has maintained the centrality of syntax.The syntactic component of transformational grammar is the generative core.Other components are interpretive and dependent on the basic and deep syntactic structure.Not ev

35、eryone agreed with him on this point.Generative semantics:give semantics the central generative role.Case grammar:see syntax as central but prefer to work with“case”structures and dependency relations.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar(SFG)Linguists who adopt this view are interest

36、ed in relating the various kinds of structures and patterns that language shows to the functions that language fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used.Difference from TG:function and contextual,purposefulHallidays three meta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textualM.A.K Halliday河南大

37、学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Ideational 概念功能概念功能Ideational:the function in which we conceptualize the world as a representation of experience.（及物性（动词）、语态、）（及物性（动词）、语态、）(19)The boy kicked the post.(The post was kicked by the boy)(20)The man liked the new house.(21)The child is homeless.(22)The girl laughed.(23)

38、The visitor said“hello”.(24)There is a girl over there.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章TransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclear participantsExampleMaterial物质过程物质过程Event(i.e.happening)Action(i.e.doing)Actor(动作者动作者),过程过程(Process),Goal(目标目标),(beneficiary/recipient,range/circumstance)She built the house(for the kids)

39、She climbed(the mountain)Mental心理过程心理过程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者感知者),过程过程(Process),Phenomenon(现象现象)She saw the carShe forgot his nameShe liked his musicRelational关系过程关系过程Attributive(归属归属)Identifying(识别识别)Carrier(载体载体),Attribute(属性属性);Token(标记标记),Value(价值价值)Maggie was our leaderMaggie wa

40、s strongBehavioural行为过程行为过程Behaver(行为者行为者)She laughedVerbal言语言语Sayer(讲话者讲话者)She repliedExistential存在过程存在过程Existent(存在物存在物)There was a beautiful princess河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Interpersonal 人际功能人际功能Interpersonal:set up and maintain social and personal relations,including communicat

41、ion roles such as questioner and respondent,and express the language users own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance.（语气（句型）、情态、语调）（语气（句型）、情态、语调）Traditionally declarative,interrogative and imperative河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Declarative:give information and perform the function of stateme

42、ntInterrogative:request something and perform the function of question Imperative:give instructions and perform the function of commandsHowever,exact correlation between form and function only occurs in idealized sentences.We can use declarative to ask questions,and to issue instructions.河南大学外语学院 马应

43、聪英语语言学：第4章Mood（语气）（语气）Demand for,and offer of,goods or servicesDemand for,and offer of,linguistic information(27)a.Pass the salt.b.Please pass the salt.c.Can you pass the salt?d.Could you possibly pass the salt?e.You couldnt possibly pass the salt,could you?Politeness increases：The more indirect the

44、 demand,the more polite it is felt to be.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Textual 语篇功能语篇功能Textual:enable the speaker or writer to construct a text,and the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences.（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）We have to decide how to order the parts of t

45、he message so as(a)to make it clear to our audience,and(b)to emphasize,or make prominent,the essential elements of it.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Information structure 信息结构信息结构 given(old,known)+new(unknown)marked vs unmarked(28)a.There is a bird on the tree.(unmarked)b.A bird is on the tree.(marked)(29)a.J

46、ames enjoys tennis more than John.(less cumbersome)b.James enjoys tennis more than John enjoys tennis.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章thematic relation 主位关系主位关系Theme主位主位:the first constituent,the starting point of the clause-what it is going to be about.Rheme述位述位:the rest of the clause(30)a.Gas explosion kille

47、d thousands.b.Thousands were killed by gas explosion.(31)a.The rain came down.(unmarked)b.Down came the rain.(marked)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章The book is on a tableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctional approaches concentrating on textual aspects feature quite highly in discourse analysis and we

48、will be returning to them in Chapter 7.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Summary4.1 Definition4.2 Word Classes(ten:5+5)4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural Analysis(with slots)4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis(tree)4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar(tree,rules,merits,feat

49、ures,problems)4.6 Transformational Grammar(grammar,classic,standard,stages,other branches)4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar(ideational,interpersonal,textual)河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Exercise1.Define the following terms.syntax,word class,prescriptive approach,descriptive approach,IC analysis,ultimate const

50、ituent,transformational grammar,ideational function,interpersonal function,textual function2.Draw two tree diagrams for the following sentence to show the different relationship of in the car.The dog bit the man in the car.河南大学外语学院 马应聪英语语言学：第4章Questions for chapter three and chapter four1.How many t