Linguistics_胡壮麟语言学教程_语言学复习资料.docx

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1、Chapter oneIntroduction、定义1 .语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2 .普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3 .语百 !anguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

2、.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4 .识别特征 Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语 百 识另特征 是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性（创造性）Duality 双 重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递5 .语言能力C

3、ompetence （抽象）Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.6 .语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication,语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。7 .历时语言学 Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. A diachronic s

4、tudy of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8 .共时语言学 Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9 .语言!angue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10 .言语parole （具

5、体）The realization of langue in actual use.11 .规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12 .描述性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点1. Language is not an isolated

6、phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的 种社会活动。2. 几种观点和现象的提出者:(1)瑞士语言学家 F.de Saussure: Langue 和 parole 的区别美国语言学家 N.Chomsky: in 1950针对 Saussures langue&parole 提出 Competence 和 Performance.曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir-language is

7、 a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Halllanguage is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky-from now on I w

8、ill consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.美国语言学家Charles Hockett:提出了语言的识别特征 design features3. The word “language“ preceded by the zero-article, it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language. Language 一XI,刖不口

9、冠 词说明语言学家不只研究种特定的语言。4. In order to discover the nature of the underlying language system, what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.5. Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so its hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.6. First

10、drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages,最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1. What are major branches of linguistics? What does each study?Phoneticsits defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.Phonol

11、ogy-the study of sounds systems一the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntaxits a subfield of linguistics that studi

12、es the sentencestructure of a language.Semantics-!ts simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics一一the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of th

13、e mind.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2. Why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds

14、refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, its only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the 4

15、arbitrariness of language is “a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.3. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的, 其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。Traditional

16、 grammar is prescriptive. It is based on high written language.传统语 法是规定性的研究高级书面语。4. is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not

17、be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的,重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究,否则很难从历时 性角度对语言进行描述。5. Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?Speech enjoys priority in modern linguistics for the following reasons: (DSpeech precedes writing in terms o

18、f evolution. (2)A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. (3) Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6. How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abs

19、tract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study. The two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of t

20、he mind of each individual.7. The distinction between langue and parole?(1) Langue is abstract, relatively stable (2) parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.Chapter Two Phonology、定义1 .宽式音标 Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbol

21、s only.2 .窄式音标 Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3 .清音 VoicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4 .浊音 VoicingSo

22、unds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5 .元音 VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6 .辅音 ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of

23、 which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7 .音位 PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, ifs a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8 .音位变体AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the

24、 allophones of that phoneme.9 .音素 phoneA phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10 .最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in t

25、he strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11 .超切分特征 Suprasegmental featuresThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone.12 .互分布 complementary distributionTwo al

26、lophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13 .语言的语音媒介 Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说 举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14

27、.爆破音stopsWhen a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive, they areb p t d k g二、知识点1. Statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been ov

28、er 5,0001anguages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.3. Phonetic 组成(1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音字 longest established, mostly developed (2)Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)Acoustic phonetics 声 学语音学4. Articu

29、latory Apparatus /Organs of SpeechPharyngeal cavity-咽腔 Oral cavity- 口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity- 鼻腔5. The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the

30、uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.6. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of k and g, the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj; the obstruction crea

31、ted between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd.7. Nasal consonants: m / n / r|8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.9. Sequential rules 例子If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three ru

32、les: (Dthe first phoneme must be /s/ (2)the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ (3)the third phoneme must be /!/ or Zr/ or Zw10. English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone; Rising tone; Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone三、问答题1. What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they cont

33、ribute to the study of speech sound?Articulatory -describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditorystudies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acousticstudies

34、the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语 音,以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质,得出了重要结论,即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究 语音的物理性质,研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2. How are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and by manner of articulati

35、on3. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? Why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪 个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics-description of all speech sounds and their find differences.

36、 Phonologydescription of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos4. Whats a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?Pho

37、ne-a speech sound, a phonetic unit. Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophonesactual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.5. What is a minimal pair and a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?Minimal pair-tw

38、o sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除 J 出现 在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set一a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一 组具有上述特征的语音组合.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philol

39、ogist can identify its phonemes. 通M 分析种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音 位.6. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription一diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differenc

40、es between sounds.7. Explain the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.序列规则 Sequential rulesRules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则 Assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential

41、phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.省略规则Deletion ruleIts a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology、定义1 .词素 MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.

42、2 .自由词素 Free MorphemeFree morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.3 .黏着词素 Bound morphemesBound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.4 .词根RootRoot

43、 is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.5 .词缀 AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6 .曲折词缀 inflectional a笛xesThe manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of i

44、nflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7 .派生词缀 Derivational affixesThe manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.8 .词干StemA stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a

45、free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9 .形态学规则 Morphological rulesThey are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.10 .前缀 PrefixPrefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the

46、prefixes be- and en (m)-11 .后缀 SuffixSuffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.In using the morphological rules, we must guard againstOver-generalization.12 . CompoundFeatures: (1) orthographically, a compound can

47、 be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. (2) syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. (3)semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component.Chapter Four Syntax、定

48、义1 .句 sentenceA structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.2 .语 百 超用 Linguistic competenceThe system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.3 .谓语 PredicateThe part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.4 .定式子句 Finite ClauseA clause that takes a subject