Morphology形态学 (2).ppt

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1、Chapter Two Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageSpeech and writingn nSpeech is more basic than writing.Speech is more basic than writing.n nIn linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing.In linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing.n nThe writing system is always invented to record The

2、 writing system is always invented to record speech.speech.n nSpeech plays a greater role than writing in Speech plays a greater role than writing in everyday communication in terms of the amount everyday communication in terms of the amount information conveyed.information conveyed.n nSpeech is alw

3、ays the way in which every native Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue.speaker acquires his mother tongue.n nLinguists are not interested in all sounds;they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organ in so far as they

4、 have a role to play in linguistic communication.n nThese sounds are limited in number.n nThis limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistics studies are the phonic medium of language;and the individual sounds within this range are the speech s

5、ounds.n nAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds,but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.n nWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?n nPhon

6、etics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.n nPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.n nPhonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view.n nTh

7、e three points of view of phonetic study:n nThe speakers point of view The speakers point of view n nThe hearers point of view The hearers point of view n nThe sound wavesThe sound waves n nThe three branches of phonetics:n nArticulatoryArticulatory phonetics(The production of speech phonetics(The p

8、roduction of speech sounds)sounds)n nAuditory phonetics(The perception of speech sounds)Auditory phonetics(The perception of speech sounds)n nAcoustic phonetics(The physical properties of speech Acoustic phonetics(The physical properties of speech sounds)sounds)2.2 Speech organsThree important areas

9、:n nThe pharyngeal cavity(throat)n n The oral cavity(mouth)n nThe nasal cavity(nose)n nLarynx2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds_ broad and narrow transcriptionsn nTowards the end of the nineteenth century,by which time Towards the end of the nineteenth century,by which time articulator

10、yarticulatory phonetics was beginning to make real great phonetics was beginning to make real great progress in the western world,so they feel the need for a progress in the western world,so they feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of standardized and internationally

11、 accepted system of phonetic transcription.phonetic transcription.n nIn 1886,the Phonetic Teachers Association was In 1886,the Phonetic Teachers Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice

12、 of phonetics useful in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods.their teaching and wished to popularize their methods.n nIt was changed to its present title of the It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic

13、 International Phonetic AssociationAssociation(IPA)in 1897.(IPA)in 1897.n nOne of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.n nThe idea of establishing a The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabetphonetic

14、alphabet was first proposed by the Danish was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen(1860-1943)in 1886,and(1860-1943)in 1886,and n nthe first version of the the first version of the International Phonetic International Phoneti

15、c AlphabetAlphabet(the (the IPA chartIPA chart)was published in)was published in August 1888.August 1888.n nIts main principles were that n nthere should be a separate letter for each there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound,and distinctive sound,and n nthat the same symbol shoul

16、d be used for that that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.sound in any language in which it appears.n nThe alphabet was to consist of as many Roman The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible,using new letters alphabet let

17、ters as possible,using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.n nThese principles continue to be followed today.Broad and narrow transcriptions l n nLeaf Leaf li:fli:f;feel;feel fi:lfi:l;build;build bildbild;health;health helhel n nDia

18、critics Diacritics n nClear l;dark l;dental l Clear l;dark l;dental l n nPit;spit Pit;spit n nNarrow transcription:Narrow transcription:n nBroad transcription:/Broad transcription:/n nThe InternationalPhonetic Alphabet(Revised to 2005)2.4 Classification of English speech sounds n nVowels n nIn the p

19、roduction of a vowel,the air stream from In the production of a vowel,the air stream from the lungs meet with no obstruction the lungs meet with no obstruction n nConsonants n nIn the production of a consonant,the air stream In the production of a consonant,the air stream is obstructed in one way or

20、 another.is obstructed in one way or another.n nThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.n nAs there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.2.4.1 Classification of

21、 English Consonants n nEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways:English consonants can be classified in two ways:one is in terms of manner of articulation and the one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulationother is in terms of place of articul

22、ation.n nBy“manner of articulation”we mean the manner By“manner of articulation”we mean the manner in which obstruction is created,and by“place of in which obstruction is created,and by“place of articulation”we mean the place where obstruction articulation”we mean the place where obstruction is crea

23、ted.is created.n nThe manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:n nthe articulators may close off the oral tract for the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;an instant or a relatively long period;n nthey may narro

24、w the space considerably;or they may narrow the space considerably;or n nthey may simply modify the shape of the tract they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.by approaching each other.Stop(or Plosive)Oral&NasalFricative(Median)ApproximantLateral(Approximant)TrillTap

25、or FlapAffricateManner of articulation n nStops:complete obstruction P b;t d Stops:complete obstruction P b;t d n nFricatives:partial obstruction f v s z Fricatives:partial obstruction f v s z h h n nAffricates:t Affricates:t d d n nLiquids:l r Liquids:l r n nNasals:m,n,Nasals:m,n,n nGlides:j wGlide

26、s:j wn nThe place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.n nPractically consonants may be produced at any Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.place between the lips and the vocal folds.n nEleven places of articulation are di

27、stinguished on the IPA chart:n nBilabialn nLabiodentaln nDentaln nAlveolarn nPostalveolarn nRetroflexn nPalataln nVelarn nUvularn nPharyngealn nGlottalPlace of articulationn nBilabial:p,b,m,w Bilabial:p,b,m,w n nLabiodentalLabiodental:f v:f v n nDental:Dental:n nAlveolar:t d s z n Alveolar:t d s z n

28、 n nPalatal:Palatal:n nVelar:k g Velar:k g n nGlottal:hGlottal:h2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsn nAs in the production of vowels the air stream meets no As in the production of vowels the air stream meets no obstruction,they can not be classified in terms of manner of obstruction,they can not

29、 be classified in terms of manner of articulation or place of articulation as consonants.articulation or place of articulation as consonants.n nVowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:n nThe position of the tongue The position of

30、the tongue n nFront,central,back Front,central,back n nThe openness of the mouth The openness of the mouth n nClose,semi-close,semi-open,open Close,semi-close,semi-open,open n nThe shape of the lips The shape of the lips n nRounded,unrounded Rounded,unrounded n nThe length of the vowels The length o

31、f the vowels n nLong,short Long,short n nMonophthongsMonophthongs;diphthongs;diphthongsJones:An Outline of English Phonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:Englishn nThe description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:n nthe height of tongue raising(the height of tongue raising(highhigh,mi

32、dmid,lowlow););n nthe position of the highest part of the tongue the position of the highest part of the tongue(frontfront,centralcentral,backback););n nthe length or the length or tensenesstenseness of the vowel(of the vowel(tensetense vs.vs.laxlax or or longlong vs.vs.shortshort),and),and n nlip-r

33、oundinglip-rounding(roundedrounded vs.vs.unroundedunrounded).).n nWe can now describe the English vowels in this way:n n high front tense unrounded vowel high front tense unrounded voweln n high back lax rounded vowel high back lax rounded voweln n mid central lax unrounded vowel mid central lax unr

34、ounded voweln n low back lax rounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel3.Phonology 3.1 Phonology and phoneticsn nBoth phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sound,but they differ in their approach and focus.n nPhonetics is of a general nature,while phonology is interested in the system of sound

35、s of a particular language.n nPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.n nIt aims to discover the principles that govern the It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages,and to way sounds are organized in languages,and to

36、 explain the variations that occur.explain the variations that occur.n nIn phonology we normally begin by analyzing an In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language,say English,in order to individual language,say English,in order to determine its determine its phonological struc

37、turephonological structure,i.e.which,i.e.which sound units are used and how they are put together.sound units are used and how they are put together.n nThen we compare the properties of sound systems Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses i

38、n different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,and ultimately we aim to discover the rules them,and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.

39、that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.3.2 Phone,phoneme,and allophone n nPhone:a phonetic unit or segment;a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning;n nPhoneme:a phonological unit,abstract and of distinctive value;n nAllophone:the different phones that represent a phoneme in differ

40、ent phonetic environment.Phone n nPhone can be defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.n nPhone is the realization of phoneme,it is concrete,while phoneme is abstract.n nThe word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast:the existence of a minimal pair automatic

41、ally grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.n nBy selecting one type of sound instead of By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another we can distinguish one word from another.another.Phoneme n nLanguages differ in the selectio

42、n of contrastive sounds.n nIn English,the distinction between aspirated In English,the distinction between aspirated pph h and unaspirated p is not and unaspirated p is not phonemicphonemic.n nIn Chinese,however,the distinction between In Chinese,however,the distinction between/p/and/p/p/and/ph h/is

43、 phonemic./is phonemic.n nBy convention,phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines(/)while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets().n nIn phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions In phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions.represent the

44、broad transcriptions.Allophonen np,ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme/p/.Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.n nIn this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context:n np occurs

45、after s while pp occurs after s while ph h occurs in other occurs in other places.places.3.3 Phonemic contrast,complementary dis-tribution,and minimal pairn nPhonemic contrast:p b n nComplementary distribution:n nMinimal pair:two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmen

46、t which occurs in the same place in the strings n nKill,till,pill Kill,till,pill n nBeat,bit,bet,bootBeat,bit,bet,boot 3.4 Some rules in phonologynSequential rulesnAssimilation rulesnDeletion rule3.4.1 Sequential rulesn nK b l iK b l i blikblik,klibklib,kilbkilb;lbkilbki,ilbkilbk,bkilbkil,ilkbilkb n

47、 nSequential rule:The rules that govern the combination of Sequential rule:The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language sounds in a particular language n n If a word begins with a l or a r,then the next sound must If a word begins with a l or a r,then the next sound must

48、be a vowel.be a vowel.n nif three consonants should cluster together at the beginning if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination should obey the following three of a word,the combination should obey the following three rules:rules:n n(1)The first phoneme m

49、ust be/s/(1)The first phoneme must be/s/n n(2)The second phoneme must be/p/or/t/or/k/(2)The second phoneme must be/p/or/t/or/k/n n(3)The third phoneme must be/1/or/r/or/w/.(3)The third phoneme must be/1/or/r/or/w/.3.4.2 Assimilationn nAssimilation rule:assimilates one sound to another by copying a f

50、eature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.n nReflected in spelling:impossible,Illegal,irregular3.4.3 Deletion rulen nTells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented Sign;paradigm n nSignature,paradigmatic n n Delete a g when it occurs before a fin