02Chapter 2_sound(1).ppt

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1、Chapter Two Speech SoundsnWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.n nPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.n nArticulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.n nAco

2、ustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.n nPerceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.nPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.1.How speech sounds are made1.1 Speech organsPosition of the voc

3、al folds:voicelessPosition of the vocal folds:voicing(initial&the widest aperture)Position of the vocal folds:glottal stop1.2 The IPAn nIn 1886,the Phonetic Teachers Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their te

4、aching and wished to popularize their methods.n nIt was changed to its present title of the It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Association(IPA)in (IPA)in 1897.1897.n nthe first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet(the IPA cha

5、rt)was published in August 1888.n nIts main principles were that n nthere should be a separate letter for each there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound.distinctive sound.n n一音一符，一符一音一音一符，一符一音一音一符，一符一音一音一符，一符一音n nThese principles continue to be followed today.n nThe InternationalP

6、honetic Alphabet(Revised to 2005)nThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.n nVowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.n nConsonants are sounds with a constriction in the vocal tract.2.1 C

7、onsonantsnThe manner of articulation nThe place of articulation nThe manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished.nThe place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Stop(or Plosive)塞音（爆破音）塞音（爆破音）Nasal（鼻音）（鼻音）Fricative（摩擦音）（摩擦音）Affricate（塞擦音）（塞

8、擦音）Approximant（趋近音）（趋近音）Lateral（边音）（边音）n nBilabial（双唇音）（双唇音）n nLabiodental（唇齿音）（唇齿音）n nDental（齿音）（齿音）n nAlveolar（齿龈音）（齿龈音）n nPostalveolar（齿龈后音）（齿龈后音）n nPalatal（硬腭音）（硬腭音）n nVelar（软腭音）（软腭音）n nGlottal（声门音）（声门音）2.2 Vowels n nCardinal Vowels,as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart,are a set of

9、 vowel qualities arbitrarily defined,fixed and unchanging,intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.Jones:An Outline of English Phonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:English 2.3 The sounds of English n nReceived Pronunciation(RP)n nGeneral American

10、(GA)n nEnglish consonantsn nThe consonants of English can be described in the following manner:n npvoiceless bilabial stoppvoiceless bilabial stopn nbvoiced bilabial stopbvoiced bilabial stopn nsvoiceless alveolar fricativesvoiceless alveolar fricativen nzvoiced alveolar fricativezvoiced alveolar fr

11、icativeEnglish vowelsn nThe description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:n nthe height of tongue raising(the height of tongue raising(highhigh,midmid,lowlow););n nthe position of the highest part of the tongue the position of the highest part of the tongue(frontfront,centra

12、lcentral,backback););n nthe length or the length or tensenesstenseness of the vowel(of the vowel(tensetense vs.vs.laxlax or or longlong vs.vs.shortshort),and),and n nlip-roundinglip-rounding(roundedrounded vs.vs.unroundedunrounded).).n nWe can now describe the English vowels in this way:n n high fro

13、nt tense unrounded vowel high front tense unrounded voweln n high back lax rounded vowel high back lax rounded voweln n mid central lax unrounded vowel mid central lax unrounded voweln n low back lax rounded vowel low back lax rounded vowelExercisesI.Try pronouncing the initial sounds of the followi

14、ng words and then determine the place of articulation.hand,foot,toe,belly,chin,thing,calf,kneeII.Which of the following words end with voiceless sounds and which end with voiced sounds？crash,bang,smack,thud,wham,splatExcercisesIII.Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the foll

15、owing words.silly,crazy,jolly,merry,dizzy,happy,long,funny3.From phonetics to phonologyn nSpeech is a continuous process,so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps.Rather,sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.n nFor example,For

16、 example,mapmap,lamblamb.3.1 Coarticulationn nWhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved,we call the process coarticulation.n nIf the sound becomes more like the following If the sound becomes more like the following sound,as in the case of sound,as in the case of lamblamb,it i

17、s known as,it is known as anticipatory coarticulationanticipatory coarticulation.n nIf the sound shows the influence of the If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound,it is preceding sound,it is perseverative perseverative coarticulationcoarticulation,as is the case of,as is the case of

18、 mapmap.n nThe fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization.n nTo indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol add a diacritic to the top of the symbol,a

19、s,as .n np is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.n nThis aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the indicated by the diacriticdiacritic h h,as p,as ph h,whereas,whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as the unaspirate

20、d counterpart is transcribed as p.p.n nWhen we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription,it is called a broad transcription.n nThe use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.n nBoth are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in squ

21、are brackets .3.2 Phonemes n nPhonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.n nPhoneticians are concerned with how sounds Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while differ in the way they are pronounce

22、d while phonologists are interested in the patterning of phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.variations.n nCrystal:Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause

23、 changes in the meaning of a word or phrase,whereas other sounds do not.n nMinimal pairs testMinimal pairs testn nPhonemesPhonemes n nThe word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast:the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for

24、 the contrasts.n nBy selecting one type of sound instead of By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another we can distinguish one word from another.another.n nLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.n nIn English,the distinction between asp

25、irated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic.n nIn Chinese,however,the distinction between/p/and/ph/is phonemic.n nBy convention,phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines(/)while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets().n nIn phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions rep

26、resent the broad transcriptions.Important termsn nPhoneme:the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two wordsn nPhone:individual sounds as they occur in speechn nAllophone:any of the different forms of a phonemen nMinimal pair:two words in a language which differ from each other

27、 by only one distinctive sound(one phoneme)and which also differ in languageExercisen nWhich of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?pat,pen,more,heat,tape,bun,fat,ban,tale,bell,meal,bet,pit,heelHow does an allophone differ from a pheme?Substituting phonemes changes meaning and soun

28、d；substituting allophones only changes sound.3.3 Allophones n np,ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme/p/.Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.n nThe allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same con

29、text:n np occurs after s while pp occurs after s while ph h occurs in other occurs in other places.places./p/p/s _ ph elsewheren nPhonetic similarity:the allophones of a phoneme must be some phonetically similar.n nVelarization:clear l and dark l/_ V /V _n nThink about tell and telling!n nFree varia

30、nts and free variation4.Phonological processes,phonological rules and distinctive features 4.1 Assimilationn nNasalization,dentalization,and velarization are all instances of assimilation,a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.n nIf a following s

31、ound is influencing a preceding sound,we call it regressive assimilation.n nThe converse process,in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound,is known as progressive assimilation.English Fricative Devoicingn n/v/f /z/s etc.n nvoiced fricative voiceless/_ voicelessn nNasalization rule:

32、-nasal +nasal/_+nasaln nDentalization rule:-dental dental/_ dentaln nVelarization rule:-velar +velar/_+velar4.2 Epenthesis,rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition n na hotel,a boy,a use,a wagon,a big man,a yellow rug,a white housen nan apple,an honor,an orange curtain,an old lady n nEpenthesis(Ins

33、ertion)Rule:Plurals in Englishn na.The appears after voiceless sounds.n nb.The appears after voiced sounds.n nc.The appears after sibilants.n n/voice,C _ (Devoicing)n n /+sibilant _ (Epenthesis)Rule orderingn nThe Elsewhere ConditionThe more specific rule applies first.4.3 Distinctive features n nTh

34、e idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson(1896-1982)in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds.Definition n nDistinctive feature:a particular characteristic which distinguish one di

35、stinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.n nSome of the major distinctions include consonantal,sonorant,nasal and voiced.n nThe feature consonantal can distinguish between The feature consonantal can distinguish between consonants and vowels,so all co

36、nsonants are consonants and vowels,so all consonants are+consonantal and all vowels consonantal.+consonantal and all vowels consonantal.n nsonorant distinguishes between what we call sonorant distinguishes between what we call obstruentsobstruents(stops,fricatives and affricates)and (stops,fricative

37、s and affricates)and sonorantssonorants(all other consonants and vowels),with (all other consonants and vowels),with obstruentsobstruents being sonorant and others being sonorant and others+sonorant.+sonorant.n nnasal and voiced of course distinguish nasal nasal and voiced of course distinguish nasa

38、l(including nasalized)sounds and voiced sounds(including nasalized)sounds and voiced sounds respectively.respectively.n nThese are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories:one with this feature and the other without.n nBinary features have two values or specifications B

39、inary features have two values or specifications denoted by+and so voiced obstruents denoted by+and so voiced obstruents are marked+voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked+voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced.are marked voiced.n nThe place features are not binary features they are di

40、vided up into four values:n nPLACE:LabialPLACE:Labialn nPLACE:CoronalPLACE:Coronaln nPLACE:Dorsal PLACE:Dorsal n nPLACE:RadicalPLACE:Radicaln nThey are often written in shorthand forms as n n LabialpLabialpn n CoronalpCoronalpn n DorsalpDorsalpn n RadicalpRadicalpn nA useful feature for consonants n

41、ot found here is spread(for spread glottis),which distinguishes between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless obstruents.n nAspirated sounds are+spread and unaspirated Aspirated sounds are+spread and unaspirated sounds are spread.sounds are spread.n nNow we can represent the rule that governs the unas

42、piration of/p/after s in terms of features:-cont -voice spread/s_ +spread in other places n nThis is a more general rule,which also applies to/t/and/k/.It means that/p,t,k/(voiced,cont)are all unaspirated(spread)after s and aspirated(+spread)in all other positions.Past tense forms in English n nstop

43、ped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedn nstabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridgedn nsteamed,stunned,pulledn nplayed,flowed,studiedn nwanted,located,decided,guidedn nThe regular past tense form in English is pronounced as t when the word ends with a voiceless consonant,d when it ends with a

44、voiced sound,and d when it ends with t or d.5.Suprasegmentals n nSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.n nThe principal suprasegmentals are:5.1 The syllable structure Onset Rime Nucleus Coda k r k tn nOpen syllable:bar,tien nClosed syllable:

45、bard,tiedn nEnglish Syllable:(C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C)n nChinese syllable:(C)V(C)n nMaximal Onset Principle(MOP)n nWhen there is a choice as to where to place a When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant,it is put into the onset rather than the consonant,it is put into the onset rather than the

46、 coda.E.g.tellingcoda.E.g.telling5.2 Stress n nStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.In transcription,a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to.n nA basic distinction is made between A basic distinction is made between stressedstressed an

47、d and unstressedunstressed syllables,the former being more syllables,the former being more prominent than the latter,which means that prominent than the latter,which means that stress is a relative notion.stress is a relative notion.n nAt the word level,it only applies to words with at least two syl

48、lables.n nAt the sentence level,a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence.Changing English Stress PatternBecoming normn ninTEGraln ncoMMUNaln nforMIDablen nconTROVersyConsidered conservativen nINtegraln nCOMMunaln nFORmidablen nCONtroversy RPn nlaBORatory

49、n nDEBrisn nGARage GAn nLABoratoryn ndeBRISn ngaRAGERP vs.GA Verbn nconVICTn ninSULTn nproDUCEn nreBEL Nounn nCONvictn nINsultn nPROducen nREbelV vs.Nn nBLACKboardn nBLACKbirdn nblack BOARDn nblack BIRDCompound PhraseCompound vs.PhrasePrimary vs.Secondary Stressn nepiphenomenaln nunsatisfactoryn ndi

50、scriminationn nstandardizationn ncommunicationn nindustrializationSentence Stressn nJohn bought a red car.n nJOHN bought a red car.n nJohn BOUGHT a red car.n nJohn bought a RED car.n nJohn bought a red CAR.5.3 Intonation n nIntonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring involves the occur