2023年胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记老师画的重点自己的.docx

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1、Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1. 2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that def

2、ine our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1 .3.1 Arbitrariness2 . 3. 2 Duality3 .3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to

3、the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.4 . 3. 4 DisplacementOrigin of language3. Auditory phonetics - the study of perception of speech soundsMost phonetician

4、s are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. 2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities. 2.

5、3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunci

6、ation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.3.3 2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of

7、 several factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction

8、of the air (place of articulation).2. 4. 3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2. 4. 5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the pre

9、stige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or aOxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulat

10、ion Place of articulationBilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post- alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appe

11、aring on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:p voiceless bilabial stopb voiced bilabial stops voiceless alveolar fricative z voiced alveolar fricativem bilabial nasaln alveolar nasal1 alveolar lateralj pa

12、latal approximanth glottal fricativer alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2. 5. 1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised -front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high,

13、mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips - various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate - raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowelsIcywarmtea doe

14、sn t quite understand this theory.Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to

15、 eight as follows: CV1 , CV2 , CV3 , CV4 , CV5 , CV6 , CV7 , CV8.A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 - CV16. I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. - icywarmtea2.5.3 Vowel

16、glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels,

17、with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RPhigh front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.1.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of

18、two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is

19、 perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.1.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad trans

20、cription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sou

21、nds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distrib

22、ution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of

23、 a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and

24、 to explain the variations that occur.2. 8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E. g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning

25、and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in mean

26、ing. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E. g. in English, when thephoneme / / occurs at the beginning of the word like peak /, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when / / occurs in the word like speak /, it is said without the puff of the air, it

27、 isunaspirated. Both the aspirated in peak and theunaspirated = in speak have the same phonemic function, i. e. they are both heard and identified as / / and not as / /; they are both allophones of the phoneme / /.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound

28、 takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Dev

29、oicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological proc

30、esses in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological pr

31、ocess must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative f voiceless / voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/

32、) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule orderingNo much to

33、 say, so omitted - icywarmtea2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe t

34、he phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supraseg

35、mental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which

36、 states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E. g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be /It shouldn, t be / or /according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3. 1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is

37、the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units.It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech de

38、veloped from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed

39、 into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade an

40、d influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.What is contextualism? in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E. g. the word “write” is

41、the lexeme of awrite, writes, wrote, writing and written. ”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, wheth

42、er it is lexical or grammatical. E. g. the word “boxes“ has two morphemes: box and es, neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E. g. the variants of the p

43、lurality “-s makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map - maps, mouse - mice, ox - oxen, tooth - teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3. 1. 1 Three senses of “word”A phys

44、ically definable unit1. The common factor underlying a set of formsA grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of wordsStabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i. e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement,

45、 compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.1. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibi 1 ity, we men new elements are n

46、ot to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.2. A minimum free formThis was first sugg

47、ested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word the minimum free form, “ the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3. 1. 3 Classification of wordsVariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find

48、 ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E. g. follow - follows -following - followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.1.

49、Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a. k. a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a. k. a. content words, have lexical meanings, i. e. those which refer to substance, action and qu