大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax.ppt

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1、大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax4.1 What is Syntax?vvThe use of language,like games,has its own rules.To play the games well,you should know the rules.Words,word groups and phrases,and clauses cannot occur at random,they have to follow certain rules of ordering.vvSYNTAX is the study of the rules governin

2、g the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.vv句法研究的是语言中不同成分组合句子的支配句法研究的是语言中不同成分组合句子的支配规则，或者句子结构中各要素间的相互关系规则，或者句子结构中各要素间的相互关系。4.2 CategoriesvvCategory in some approaches refers to classes

3、 and functions in its narrow sense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,noun phrase,verb phrase,etc.vv范畴这一术语在一些学派中指范畴这一术语在一些学派中指的是狭义的的是狭义的词类词类和词语的和词语的功能功能，例如名词、动词、主语、谓语、例如名词、动词、主语、谓语、名词短语、动词短语等。名词短语、动词短语等。vvMore specifically,it refers to the defining properties of these general units:vv更具体一些，范畴指的是这些更具体一些

4、，范畴指的是这些一般性单位一般性单位的的甄别性甄别性特点：特点：vvThe categories of the noun,include number,gender,case and countability;vv名词名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；vvThe categories of the verb,for example,person,tense,aspect,mood,voice,etc.vv动词动词范畴则含有范畴则含有人称、时、体、式、态等。时、体、式、态等。Grammatical CategoriesvvThe term “grammatical

5、category”is used by some linguists to refer to word classes.vvIn TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by“category symbols”such as S,NP,VP,Det,A,etc.vv有些语言学家用有些语言学家用“语法范畴语法范畴”这个术语来表这个术语来表示示词类词类。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用S,NP,VP,Det,A等等“范畴符号范畴符号”表示的表示的句句法单位法单位。数数(Number)vvNumbe

6、r is a grammatical category with a clear semantic basis primarily for nouns with two forms:singular/plural(boy/boys).Not all the English nouns have a singular-plural distinction.vvThose nouns that have this distinction are called“count nouns”.Their regular plural forms are clearly marked by plural s

7、uffixes.vvNumber is also reflected in pronouns(as in I/we)and verbs since in English there is concord(agreement)of number between nouns and verbs(The boy runs/The boys run).NumberNounPronounVerb(agreement)singularmanHe workspluralmenThey work数数(Number)性性(Gender)vvMany inflectional languages have thr

8、ee meaning-related gender distinction:masculine,feminine and neuter.vv许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、阴性、中性。阴性、中性。vvIn English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the biological gender.GenderNounPronounmasculineactorHe feminineactressShe

9、 格格(Case)vvMany English pronouns have different forms corresponding to the distinction of subjective(nominative),objective(accusative and dative)and genitive cases,as in I,me,my;we,us,our;he,him,his,etc.英语中有许多代英语中有许多代词的不同的形式，分别对应主格、宾格、属格词的不同的形式，分别对应主格、宾格、属格等等等等vvApart from the pronoun system,English

10、 has only one case distinction in nouns-the genitive case indicated by the suffix/-iz/,/-z/and/-s/in phonetic forms and“apostraphe+s”(boys),or apostrophe only(boys)in writing.vv英语中除了代词之外，只有名词有格的变化，英语中除了代词之外，只有名词有格的变化，即名词所有格。即名词所有格。格格(Case)人称(person)vvThe category of“person”is overtly marked in Engli

11、sh pronoun system.It also belongs to the verbs because the number of subject is indicated in the verb form when the subject is in the third person and the verb is in the present tense.It hurts;they hurtvv人称在英语代词体系中是明确标示出来的。人称在英语代词体系中是明确标示出来的。人称也适用于动词，如果动词是第三人称现人称也适用于动词，如果动词是第三人称现在时，主语的数就会在动词的词形上表现出在

12、时，主语的数就会在动词的词形上表现出来的。来的。时时(Tense)vvTense shows the relationship between the form of the verb and the speakers concept of time.In English,the formal indication is between past and non-past,with the past formally marked in regular verbs by suffix-edvv“时时”表示动词的表示动词的词形词形和说话者的和说话者的时间概念时间概念之间之间的关系。在英语中，用词

13、形区分的时态分的关系。在英语中，用词形区分的时态分过去时过去时和和非过去时非过去时，对规则的动词而言，用后缀，对规则的动词而言，用后缀-ed表示表示过去时。过去时。体体(Aspect)vvAspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed.English has two aspect constructions,the perfective and the progressive,realised by“have+ed participle”and“be+-ing participle”respectively.vv“体体

14、”关系到如何看待动词描述的事件。英关系到如何看待动词描述的事件。英语中有两种体，一个是语中有两种体，一个是完成体完成体；一个是；一个是进行进行体体。式式(Mood)vvMood involves a choice between indicative,imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality.vv“式式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据，词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据，视动词所描述的事件真实

15、与否而定。视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。vvThe English imperative has only a“tenseless”be as formal marker.vvSubjunctive mood is used to indicate some of the nonfactual and hypothetical situations.English has two formal markers of subjunctive mood,the base form and were.vv英语中的祁使式只是一个形式标记，即英语中的祁使式只是一个形式标记，即“无无时态时态”的的 be

16、。vv虚拟式用来表示与事实虚拟式用来表示与事实不符不符的的假设假设的情况。的情况。英语中的虚拟式有两种标记，即动词原形和英语中的虚拟式有两种标记，即动词原形和were。态态(Voice)vvVoice makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of the two ways without the changes in the facts reported.“态态”使人能从使人能从两种角度两种角度看待句子看待句子描述的动描述的动作作但但不改变句子描述不改变句子描述的事实。的事实。vvThe passive voic

17、e of English is realized by“be+ed participle”.The doer in the active sentence is omitted in the passive or is indicated by a“by-phrase”.vv英语中有被动语态，用英语中有被动语态，用“分词分词”表示。主动表示。主动态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或用用“by短语短语”vvActive voice Jim caught the ball.vvPassive voice The ball was caught.vvPassi

18、ve voice with“by-phrase”The ball was caught by Jim.vvIn our textbook,categories refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.vv范畴指的是某一种特定的语言中范畴指的是某一种特定的语言中执行执行相同或相同或相近相近功能功能的一组的一组语言项目语言项目，如句子、名词短

19、，如句子、名词短语、或者动词。语、或者动词。Word-level categoriesvvThe most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.vv对于对于句法研究最核心句法研究最核心的范畴是的范畴是词层次范畴词层次范畴。vvHere word level categories are divided into two kinds:major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.vvMAJOR lexical categorie

20、s play a very important role in the sentence formation.vvTo determine a words category,three criteria are usually employed,namely,meaning,inflection and distribution.vvWord categories often bear some relationship with its meaning.vvThe second criterion is inflection.Words of different categories tak

21、e different inflections.vvThe last and more reliable criterion is its distribution.That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.vvPHRASE is a single element of structure containing more than one word,and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.Traditionally,it is

22、 seen as part of structural hierarchy,positioned between clause and word.vv短语短语(PHRASE)是含有一个以上词语的单一结构是含有一个以上词语的单一结构要素，它没有分句所特有的主谓结构要素，它没有分句所特有的主谓结构(subject-predicate structure)。从传统上讲，短语被视为。从传统上讲，短语被视为层级结构的一部分，位居分句和词语之间。层级结构的一部分，位居分句和词语之间。Phrase Categories and Their StructuresvvSo we can see that in

23、a sentence words are grouped together.These groups are grammatical units.These are units,subunits and sub-subunits,each corresponding to certain syntactical categories and ordered in terms of five hierarchical：/,haiE/,haiEra:kiklra:kikl/ranks:v1.sentences(each consists of one or more clauses)v2.clau

24、ses(each consists of one or more phrases)v3.phrases(each consists of one or more words)v4.words(each consists of one or more morphemes)v5.morphemesvvSyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called PHRASE,the category of which is determined by the word category around which t

25、he phrase is built.vv围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位称为短语。它围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位称为短语。它的范畴由该短语构成时所围绕的词的范畴决定。的范畴由该短语构成时所围绕的词的范畴决定。vvIf the word around which the phrase is built is a noun,then the phrase is a noun phrase and so on.vv短语构成所围绕的词是名词，那么该短语就短语构成所围绕的词是名词，那么该短语就是名词短语依此类推。是名词短语依此类推。vvIn English syntactic analysis,the m

26、ost commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase(NP),verb phrase(VP),adjective phrase(AP)and prepositional phrase(PP).vvN V A P word level major vvNP VP AP PP phrase levelvvPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements:head,specifier and

27、 complement.The word which a phrase is formed is termed head.The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.The words on the right side of the heads are complements.vv由多个单词构成的短语通常包括以下成分：由多个单词构成的短语通常包括以下成分：中心语中心语、标志语标志语和和补语补语。短语围绕所构成的。短语围绕所构成的词叫做词叫做中心语中心语。出现在中心语。出现在中心语左边左边

28、的词叫做的词叫做标志语标志语，出现在中心语，出现在中心语右边右边的词叫做的词叫做补语补语。4.3 Phrase Structure RulevvAs we have seen,a certain word can only concur with certain other words.vvThere must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers,heads,and complements occupy in phrase structure.如我们所见，

29、某一如我们所见，某一特定特定的的词词只能与只能与另一类另一类特定特定的的词组词组一起一起出现出现。这其中必定存在着某种这其中必定存在着某种语法机制确保语法机制确保标志标志语、中心语和补语在短语结构中处于语、中心语和补语在短语结构中处于恰当恰当位置位置的。的。vvSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called phrase structure rule（PS rule）.这种这种规定构成规定构成一个一个短语短语

30、的的成分成分的的排列排列的特殊的特殊语法机制语法机制类型被称作是类型被称作是短语规则短语规则。v NP (Det)N (PP)vv VP (Qual)V (NP)vv AP (Deg)A (PP)vv PP (Deg)P (NP)consists of”consists of”“branches into“branches intoThe parenthesesThe parentheses the element in the element in them is optionalthem is optionalOther complement Other complement option

31、s are options are availableavailable箭头箭头可以读作可以读作“由由构成构成”或者或者“扩扩展为展为”，括号括号表明其中的成分可以表明其中的成分可以省略省略，每个规则后面的，每个规则后面的三点三点表示可以表示可以选择选择加入加入其他的补语。其他的补语。v NP (Det)N (PP)vv VP (Qual)V (NP)vv AP (Deg)A (PP)vv PP (Deg)P (NP)SpecifierSpecifierComplementComplementHeadXPX XThe XP rule:XP(specifier)X(complement)vvTh

32、e syntactic constructions analyzed are of two types:endocentric and exocentric constructions,depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents.vv根据句法结构的根据句法结构的分布分布及句法结构中及句法结构中成分成分之间之间的的关系关系,句法结构可以分为向心结构和离心结句法结构可以分为向心结构和离心结构构.Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentr

33、ic ConstructionsvvENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e.a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.vv向心结构的分布和它的一个或多个成分的分向心结构的分布和它的一个或多个成分的分布在功能上相同，该成分是一个词或一组词，布在功能上相同，该成分是一个词或一组词，是整个结构的核

34、心或中心。是整个结构的核心或中心。vvUsually noun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.vv名词短语名词短语、动词短语动词短语和和形容词形容词通常都属于向通常都属于向心结构，因为各心结构，因为各成分从属成分从属于短语于短语中心词中心词。vvThese two oldest stone bridgesvv HeadvvWill be leaving very lat

35、e vv Head HeadExocentric ConstructionsvvEXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,there is no definable“Centre”or“Head”inside the group.vv离心结构指的是一组离心结构指的是一组句法句法上上相关相关的的词词中中没有没有一个词一个词在在功能

36、功能上与上与整个词组相同整个词组相同，也就是说，也就是说，词组内词组内没有没有“核心核心”或或“中心词中心词”。vvExocentric construction usually includes basic sentence,prepositional phrase,predicate construction(verb+object),and connective construction(be+complement).vv离心结构通常包括：离心结构通常包括：基本句基本句，介词短语介词短语，谓谓语结构语结构和和连词结构连词结构。vvThe boyThe boy smiledsmiled.(

37、Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence struture (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence struture as a whole.)as a whole.)两个两个两个两个成分均不能替代成分均不能替代成分均不能替代成分均不能替代整个整个整个整个句子句子句子句子结构结构结构结构vv He hid He hid behindbehind the doorthe door .(Neither constituent can function as the adve

38、rbial.)(Neither constituent can function as the adverbial.)两个两个两个两个成分成分成分成分均均均均不能单独不能单独不能单独不能单独起到起到起到起到状语状语状语状语的功能的功能的功能的功能vvHe He kickedkicked the ballthe ball.(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)两个两个两个两个成分成分成分成分均均均均不能单

39、独不能单独不能单独不能单独表示动表示动表示动表示动-宾排列。宾排列。宾排列。宾排列。vvJohn John seemedseemed angryangry.(After division,(After division,the connective construction no longer exists.)the connective construction no longer exists.)分开分开分开分开后，连词结构后，连词结构后，连词结构后，连词结构不复存在不复存在不复存在不复存在v NP the lady or NP the tigervvVP go to the librar

40、y and VP read a bookvvPP down the stairs or PP out the doorvvAP quite expensive and AP very beautifulvvS John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.vvNP A man,a woman,a boy,a cat and a dog got into the car.vvThe common syntactic patterns are formed by grouping together two or more categories of the s

41、ame type with the help of conjunction such as“and”,“or”and“but”.Such phrases are called coordinate structures and this phenomenon is called coordination.vv在英语中，有些结构是借助于象在英语中，有些结构是借助于象and或者是或者是or这样这样的连词将同种类型的两个或者是多个成分连接起的连词将同种类型的两个或者是多个成分连接起来而构成的。这样的短语称为来而构成的。这样的短语称为并列结构并列结构，这种现，这种现象叫做象叫做并列并列。vvThe f

42、our important properties of Coordination(P46)CoordinationvvEndocentric constructions fall into two main types,depending in the relation between constituents:Coordination and Subordination.vv根据组成成分之间的关系，根据组成成分之间的关系，向心向心结构可分为结构可分为并列并列与与从属从属。SubordinationvvSUBORDINATION refers to the process or SUBORDI

43、NATION refers to the process or result of result of linking linguistic unitslinking linguistic units so that they have so that they have different syntactic statusdifferent syntactic status,one being one being dependent dependent upon upon the other,the other,and usually aand usually a constituent c

44、onstituent of the of the other.other.vv从属指的是将从属指的是将从属指的是将从属指的是将语言单位连接语言单位连接语言单位连接语言单位连接以使以使以使以使各单位具备不同句各单位具备不同句各单位具备不同句各单位具备不同句法地位法地位法地位法地位的过程和结果，其中一个单位的过程和结果，其中一个单位的过程和结果，其中一个单位的过程和结果，其中一个单位依赖于依赖于依赖于依赖于另一个另一个另一个另一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个单位，且通常是该单位的一个成分成分成分成分。Phrase ElementsSpecifier

45、svvThe syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head(distribution).vvIf the heads are Ns,the specifiers are determiners.vvIf the heads are Vs,the specifiers are qualifiers.vvIf the heads are As and Ps,then the specifiers are degree words.vv标志语标志语的句法范畴因的句法范畴因中心语范畴中

46、心语范畴的不同而不的不同而不同。同。限定语限定语是作为是作为名词名词的标志语，的标志语，修饰语修饰语则则是典型地作为是典型地作为动词动词的标志语，而的标志语，而程度词程度词则作则作为为形容词形容词（有时是（有时是介词介词）的标志词。）的标志词。ComplementsvvComplements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of its head.They are attached to th

47、e right of the head.6(P,48 4-1)vv补语自身就是短语，它们为补语自身就是短语，它们为中心词意义中心词意义中所中所必须包含的必须包含的实体实体与与位置位置提供了信息。在英语提供了信息。在英语中，它们依附在中心词的中，它们依附在中心词的右边右边。SubcategorizationvvThe information about a words complement is The information about a words complement is included in the head and termed included in the head and

48、termed SUBCATEGORIZATION.SUBCATEGORIZATION.vv有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为有关词的补语信息是包括在中心语之中的，被称为次范畴化。次范畴化。次范畴化。次范畴化。vvA certain lexical item requires a certain type of A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complements.Therefore,we can revise our compl

49、ements.Therefore,we can revise our earlier XP rule,using an asteriskearlier XP rule,using an asterisk after the after the complement to indicate that complement to indicate that one or more of these one or more of these elements is permittedelements is permitted.vv一个特定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们一个特定的词汇项要求一种特

50、定的补语。因此我们一个特定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们一个特定的词汇项要求一种特定的补语。因此我们可以对我们先前的可以对我们先前的可以对我们先前的可以对我们先前的XPXPXPXP规则进行修订，用补语后面星规则进行修订，用补语后面星规则进行修订，用补语后面星规则进行修订，用补语后面星号表示号表示号表示号表示多个这样的成分是被允许的多个这样的成分是被允许的多个这样的成分是被允许的多个这样的成分是被允许的。XP R1vvThe XP Rule(revised)vvXP(Specifier)X(Complement)ComplementizersvvMiss Hebert believes t