国外动物学36教案.ppt

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1、国外动物学36 Still waters run deep.流静水深流静水深,人静心深人静心深 Where there is life,there is hope。有生命必有希望。有生命必有希望What Is Behavior?lBehavior is what an animal does and how it does it.lLearning is also considered a behavioral process.lPioneers of ethology:Proximate vs.Ultimate CauseslThe scientific questions that can

2、 be asked about behavior can be divided into two classes:lThose that focus on the immediate stimulus and mechanism for the behavior.lThose that explore how the behavior contributes to survival and reproduction.Proximate and Ultimate QuestionslProximate,or“how”,questions about behavior focus on the e

3、nvironmental stimuli that trigger a behavior.lFocus on the genetic,physiological,and anatomical mechanisms underlying a behavioral act.Proximate and Ultimate QuestionslUltimate,or“why”,questions about behavior address the evolutionary significance of a behavior.EthologylEthology is the scientific st

4、udy of animal behavior,particularly in natural environments.Behavioral EcologylThe modern scientific discipline of behavioral ecology extends observations of animal behavior by studying:how such behavior is controlled and how it develops,evolves,and contributes to survival and reproductive success.S

5、ociobiologylHuman culture is related to evolutionary theory in the distinct discipline of sociobiology.lHuman behavior,like that of other species is the result of interactions between genes and environment.Ethology basic conceptslLorenz and Tinbergen(1938)examined egg-rolling behavior in the greylag

6、 goose.lIf the egg slipped away,she continued the motion.lOnce started,the behavior must be completed in a specific way.lStereotypical behaviorFixed Action PatternslA fixed action pattern(FAP)is a sequence of unlearned,innate behaviors that is unchangeable.lOnce initiated,it is usually carried to co

7、mpletion.Fixed Action PatternslA FAP is triggered by an external sensory stimulus known as a sign stimulus.lThe egg,for example.Fixed Action PatternslIn male sticklebacks,the sign stimulus for attack behavior,is the red underside of an intruder.(a)A male three-spined stickleback fish shows its red u

8、nderside.Fixed Action PatternslWhen presented with unrealistic models,as long as some red is present,the attack behavior occurs.lNo attack occurs with the realistic model that lacks red.Fixed Action PatternsFixed Action PatternslMale English robins will attack a bundle of red feathers placed in thei

9、r territory,but will ignore a stuffed juvenile(no red).Fixed Action PatternslThere are costs involved with attack behavior.lInappropriate attack responses can be costly.lRed items are not common in the environment.Control of BehaviorlBiologists study the ways both genes and the environment influence

10、 the development of behavioral phenotypes.lBehavior that is developmentally fixed is called innate behavior and is under strong genetic influence.lDoes not need to be practiced.The Genetics of BehaviorlHereditary transmission of behavior is often complex.lOccasionally,a behavior will follow Mendelia

11、n rules.The Genetics of Behaviorl“Hygienic”bees uncap hive cells and remove rotting larvae.lControlled by two genes.lHomozygous recessive individuals show the trait.The Genetics of BehaviorlHybrids may show intermediate or confused behavior.lEach species of Agapornis has its own method of carrying n

12、est-building material.lIn the billlTucked into feathers on the backlHybrids tried both,but performed both incorrectly.LearninglLearning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences.lLearned behaviors range from very simple to very complex.HabituationlHabituation is a loss of respons

13、iveness to stimuli that convey little or no information.lIf a noxious stimulus is applied,the animal becomes sensitized to the stimulus.ImprintinglImprinting is a type of behavior that includes both learning and innate components and is generally irreversible.ImprintinglImprinting is distinguished f

14、rom other types of learning by a sensitive period a limited phase in an animals development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.ImprintinglAn example of imprinting is young geese following their mother.ImprintinglKonrad Lorenz showed that when baby geese spent the first few h

15、ours of their life with him,they imprinted on him as their parent.ImprintingImprintingImprintinglConservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting in programs to save the whooping crane from extinction.ImprintinglYoung male white-crowned sparrows learn their song by listening to their fathe

16、r.lA bird raised in isolation will have an abnormal song.lIf he hears a recording of the song during a critical period,he will learn it even the local dialect.lHe can only learn the song of his species.Social BehaviorlSocial behavior includes any interaction resulting from a response of one animal t

17、o another animal of the same species.Selective Consequences of SocialitylBenefits of social behavior:lDefense(passive and active)from predatorslEasier to find a matelSynchronize reproductive behavior(increases likelihood of offspring survival)lParental care increases survival of offspringSelective C

18、onsequences of SocialitylMore benefits:lCooperative huntinglHuddling to avoid severe weatherlDivision of laborSelective Consequences of SocialitylLearning new techniques.lOne macaque,Imo,discovered the ease of removing sand by washing sweet potatoes.lBehavior spread through the troop.lShe also found

19、 that if she threw rice mixed with sand into the water,the rice floats,while sand sinks.lThis behavior also spread.Selective Consequences of SocialitySelective Consequences of SocialitylDisadvantages include:lCamouflage may be less effectivelNot enough food to support numerous individuals.Social Coo

20、rdination vs.CooperationlSocially coordinated behavior occurs when an individual adjusts its behavior when others are present.lAgonistic&competitive encounterslTerritorialitySocial Coordination vs.CooperationlCooperative behavior occurs when an individual performs activities that benefit others beca

21、use this will ultimately be beneficial.lCooperative foraginglCooperative breeding behaviorsAgonistic or Competitive BehaviorlWhen resources are limited,competition for the limiting resource occurs.lFood,water,mates,shelterlAggressive or agonistic behavior includes physical action or threat that caus

22、es another to abandon something.Agonistic or Competitive BehaviorlRitualized threat displays get the meaning across usually without injury.Agonistic or Competitive BehaviorlThe loser of a ritualized battle will indicate submission to end the encounter quickly.lMany species set up a dominance hierarc

23、hy or pecking order(first observed in chickens).TerritorialitylTerritory a fixed area from which others are excluded.lTerritoriality is observed when individuals defend an area that includes a limited resource.lIntraspecific exclude only members of the same species.lInterspecific exclude any individ

24、ual that might be after the resource being guarded,regardless of species.TerritorialityTerritorialitylWhen territories are first established,there may be more frequent aggressive encounters.lSongbirds use their song to establish their territory.TerritorialityTerritorialitylSea birds defend only a ne

25、sting site so their territories may be quite small.lOthers defend foraging areas as well these territories are larger.Home RangelA home range differs from a territory in that it is not defended.lIncludes the total area an individual utilizes in its activities.lAn animal may have a larger home range

26、that includes a smaller,defended territory.Mating BehaviorlMating behavior is the product of a form of natural selection call sexual selection.lThe mating relationship between males and females varies a great deal from species to species.Mating SystemslIn many species,mating is promiscuous,with no s

27、trong pair-bonds or lasting relationships.lIn monogamous relationships,one male mates with one female.Mating SystemslIn polygyny,one male mates with many females.lThe males are often more showy and larger than the females.Mating SystemslIn polyandrous systems,one female mates with many males.lThe fe

28、males are often more showy than the males.Mating SystemslResource-defense polygyny males gain access to females indirectly by holding critical resources.lBullfrogslFemale-defense polygyny females aggregate and can be defended by a male.lElephant sealsMating SystemslMale-dominance polygyny occurs whe

29、n females select mates from an aggregation of males.lA lek is a communal display ground where males try to attract females.lSage grouseMating SystemsInclusive FitnesslInclusive FitnesslMany social behaviors are selfish.lNatural selection favors behavior that maximizes an individuals survival and rep

30、roduction.AltruismlOn occasion,some animals behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of others.lThis kind of behavior is called altruism.AltruismlIn naked mole rat populations,nonreproductive individuals may sacrifice their lives protecting the reproductive indivi

31、duals from predators.Inclusive FitnesslAltruistic behavior can be explained by inclusive fitness the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables close relatives to produce offspring.Hamiltons Rule and Kin SelectionlHamilt

32、on proposed a quantitative measure for predicting when natural selection would favor altruistic acts among related individuals.Hamiltons Rule and Kin SelectionlThe three key variables in an altruistic act are:lThe benefit to the recipient.lThe cost to the altruist.lThe coefficient of relatedness.Ham

33、iltons Rule and Kin SelectionlThe coefficient of relatedness is the probability that two relatives may share the same genes.Hamiltons Rule and Kin SelectionlIn honey bees,most of the females in a colony do not reproduce.lFemale workers can increase their overall fitness by caring for sisters rather

34、than reproducing on their own.Hamiltons Rule and Kin SelectionlNatural selection favors altruism when the benefit(B)to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness(r)exceeds the cost(C)to the altruist.lrB ClThis inequality is called Hamiltons rule.Hamiltons Rule and Kin SelectionlKin s

35、election is natural selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.Hamiltons Rule and Kin SelectionlAn example of kin selection and altruism is the warning behavior observed in Beldings ground squirrels.Reciprocal AltruismlAltruistic behavior to

36、ward unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future.lThis type of altruism is called reciprocal altruism.lVampire batsAnimal CommunicationlIn behavioral ecology,a signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animals behavior.lCommunication is th

37、e reception of and response to signals.Animal CommunicationlAnimals communicate using visual,auditory,chemical,tactile,and electrical signals.lThe type of signal used to transmit information is closely related to an animals lifestyle and environment.Chemical CommunicationlMany animals that communica

38、te through odors emit chemical substances called pheromones.lFemale silkworm moths produce an attractant that is picked up by receptors on the antennae of males.Chemical CommunicationlWhen a minnow or catfish is injured,an alarm substance in the fishs skin disperses in the water,inducing a fright re

39、sponse among fish in the area.Language of Honey BeeslHoney bees use dances to communicate the location of food resources.lRound dance conveys information about food close to the hive.lWaggle dance indicates that a rich food source is farther from the hive and uses the position of the sun relative to

40、 the food source.The tempo conveys information about distance.Language of Honey BeesCommunication by DisplayslAnimals frequently use ritualized displays to communicate.lBlue-footed boobies use pair-bonding displays.lIntense after a period of separation.Communication by DisplaysAnimal CognitionlCognition is the ability of an animals nervous system to perceive,store,process,and use information gathered by sensory receptors.Animal CognitionlProblem solving can be learned by observing the behavior of other animals.