组织行为学精要第7版chap_3.pdf

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1、Part II The Individual in the Organization 34 CHAPTER 4-BASIC MOTIVATION CONCEPTS CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter,students should be able to:1.Outline the basic motivation process.2.Describe Maslows hierarchy of needs theory.3.Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.4.Differentiate motivators f

2、rom hygiene factors.5.List the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job.6.Summarize the types of goals that increase performance.7.Contrast reinforcement and goal-setting theories.8.Explain equity theory.9.Clarify the key relationships in expectancy theory.LECTURE OUTLINE I.WHAT IS MOTIVA

3、TION?A.Definition 1.May be defined in terms of some outward behavior.a)People who are motivated exert a greater effort to perform than those who are not motivated.2.A more descriptive but less substantive definition.a)Motivation is the willingness to do something and is conditioned by this actions a

4、bility to satisfy some need for the individual.b)A need,in our terminology,means a physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.c)The motivation process is shown in Exhibit 4-1.B.Needs and Drives 1.An unsatisfied need creates tension,which stimulates drives

5、 within the individual.2.These drives generate a search for particular goals that,if attained,will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension.3.Motivated employees are in a state of tension.a)To relieve this tension,they engage in activity.b)The greater the tension,the more activity will

6、be needed to bring about relief.II.EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION A.Hierarchy of Needs Theory 1.The best-known approach to motivation is Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs theory.2.He hypothesized that every human being has an internal hierarchy of five needs.a)Physiological needshunger,thirst,shelter

7、,sex,and other bodily needs b)Safety needssecurity and protection from physical and emotional harm c)Social needsaffection,a sense of belonging,acceptance,and friendship d)Esteem needinternal factors such as self-respect,autonomy,and achievement and external factors such as status,recognition,and at

8、tention e)Self-actualization needsthe drive to become what one is capable of becoming;includes growth,achieving ones potential,and self-fulfillment 3.As each is satisfied,the next need becomes dominant.a)See Exhibit 4-2 for the hierarchy.b)A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.4.Maslow

9、separated the five needs into higher and lower orders.Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts 35 a)Physiological and safety needs were lower order and were predominately satisfied externally.b)Social,esteem,and self-actualization were categorized as higher-order needs and are satisfied internally.c)The

10、natural conclusion is that,in times of economic plenty,almost all permanently employed workers will have their lower-order needs substantially met.5.Maslows need theory has received wide recognition,particularly among practicing managers.a)This acceptance is due to the logic and ease with which the

11、theory is intuitively understood.b)However,research does not generally validate the theory.(1)There is little support for the prediction that need structures are organized along the dimensions proposed.(2)Nor does the prediction that the substantial satisfaction of a given need leads to the activati

12、on of the next higher need seem true.B.Theory X and Theory Y 1.Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings.a)One basically negative,labeled Theory X.b)The other basically positive,labeled Theory Y.2.Theory X has four assumptions.a)Employees inherently dislike work and,whenever possi

13、ble,will attempt to avoid it.b)Since employees dislike work,they must be coerced,controlled,or threatened with punishment to achieve desired goals.c)Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.d)Most workers place security above all other factors associated with

14、 work and will display little ambition.3.Theory Y has four contrasting assumptions.a)Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.b)A person who is committed to the objectives will exercise self-direction and self-control.c)The average person can learn to accept,and even seek responsi

15、bility.d)The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.4.Implications if you accept McGregors analysis.a)Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals.b)Theory Y assumes

16、that higher-order needs dominate individuals.5.Unfortunately,no evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is valid.C.Two-Factor Theory 1.The two-factor theory,or the motivation-hygiene theory,was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg.2.Herzberg investigated the question,“What do people

17、want from their jobs?”3.Research showed people replied significantly differently based on whether they felt good or bad about their jobs.4.He isolated certain characteristics.a)Exhibit 4-3.b)Some internal factors such as advancement,recognition,responsibility,and achievement are consistently related

18、 to job satisfaction c)Extrinsic factors such as supervision,pay,company policies,and working conditions relate to job dissatisfaction.Part II The Individual in the Organization 36 5.The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction,as removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not nec

19、essarily make the job satisfying.a)Managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivationthey will be placating their work force rather than motivating them.b)Conditions surrounding the job such as quality of supervision,pay,co

20、mpany policies,and so on,were characterized as hygiene factors.c)When they are adequate,people will not be dissatisfied;neither will they be satisfied.d)To motivate people,Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it,such as promotion

21、al opportunities,personal growth opportunities,and so on.e)These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding.6.Criticisms of the Theory.a)The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.b)The reliability of Herzbergs methodology is questionable.c)No overall measur

22、e of satisfaction was utilized.d)The theory is inconsistent with previous research;it ignores situational variables.e)Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity,but his research methodology looked only at satisfaction,not at productivity.7.Regardless of criticisms,Herzberg

23、s theory has been widely popularized,and few managers are unfamiliar with his recommendations.III.CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION A.McClellands Theory of Needs 1.David McClelland and others have proposed three major relevant motives or needs in the workplace,McClellands Theory of Needs.a)The nee

24、d for achievement(nAch)is the drive to excel,to achieve in relation to a set of standards,to strive to succeed.b)The need for power(nPow)is the need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise.c)The need for affiliation(nAff)is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal

25、 relationships.2.Some people have a compelling drive to succeed,but they are striving for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success.a)This drive is the need for achievement.b)McClelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better.c

26、)They seek situations in which they can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems,receive rapid and unambiguous feedback on their performance,and set moderately challenging goals.d)They prefer working at a challenging problem and accepting the personal responsibility for succe

27、ss or failure rather than leaving the outcome to chance or the actions of others.e)High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 50-50.f)They like to set realistic but difficult goals that require stretching themselves a little.3.The need for power is the desire to h

28、ave an impact,to be influential,and to control others.a)Individuals high in nPow enjoy being in charge,strive for influence over others,prefer competitive and status-oriented situations,and tend to be more concerned with gaining prestige and influence over others than with effective performance.4.Th

29、e third need is the need for affiliation.a)This need has received the least attention of researchers.Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts 37 b)Individuals with a high nAff strive for friendship,prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones,and desire relationships involving a high degree

30、 of mutual understanding.5.All three motives are typically measured through a projective test in which subjects respond to a set of pictures.6.Predictions can be made on the basis of the relationship between achievement need and job performance.a)Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job si

31、tuations with personal responsibility,feedback,and an intermediate degree of risk.(1)High achievers are successful in entrepreneurial activities such as running their own business,managing a self-contained unit within a large organization,and many sales positions.b)A high need to achieve does not ne

32、cessarily lead to being a good manager.c)The needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success.(1)The best managers are high in the need for power and low in their need for affiliation.d)Employees have been successfully trained to stimulate their achievement need.B.Goa

33、l-Setting Theory 1.Considerable evidence supports goal-setting theory.2.Intentions that are expressed as goals can be a major source of work motivation.3.Specific,difficult-to-achieve goals produce a higher level of output than a generalized goal of “do your best.”4.The specificity of the goal itsel

34、f acts as an internal stimulus.5.If factors such as ability and acceptance of the goals are held constant,we can also state that the more difficult the goals,the higher the level of performance.6.If employees have the opportunity to participate in the setting of their own goals,will they try harder?

35、a)The evidence is mixed.b)A major advantage of participation may be in increasing acceptance of the goal itself as a desirable one.c)Participative goals may have no superiority over assigned goals when acceptance is taken as a given;participation does increase the probability that more difficult goa

36、ls will be agreed to and acted upon.7.Studies testing goal-setting theory have demonstrated the superiority of specific and challenging goals as motivating forces.8.There appears to be a contradiction between the findings on achievement motivation and goal setting.a)It is not actually a contradictio

37、n.b)First,goal-setting theory deals with people in general.c)The conclusions on achievement motivation are based only on people who have a high nAch,and probably fewer than 10 to 20 percent of any countrys workforce are naturally high achievers.d)Second,goal settings conclusions apply to those who a

38、ccept,and are committed to,the goals.Difficult goals will lead to higher performance only if they are accepted.C.Reinforcement Theory 1.A counterpoint to goal-setting theory is reinforcement theory.a)The former is a cognitive approach,proposing that an individuals purposes direct his or her actions.

39、Part II The Individual in the Organization 38 b)Reinforcement theory uses a behavioristic approach,which argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.2.The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically.a)Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused.What controls behavior are re

40、inforcersany consequences that,when immediately following a response,increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated.3.Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.a)Because it does not

41、 concern itself with what initiates behavior,it is not,strictly speaking,a theory of motivation.4.Chapter 2 introduced the law of effect(behavior is a function of its consequences)and showed that reinforcers(consequences)condition behavior and explains how people learn.a)Research indicates that peop

42、le will exert more effort on tasks that are reinforced than on tasks that are not.b)But reinforcement is not the single explanation for differences in employee motivation.c)Goals,for instance,have an impact on motivation;so,too,do levels of achievement motivation,inequities in rewards,and expectatio

43、ns.D.Equity Theory 1.Employees make comparisons.a)The issue centers around relative rewards and what you believe is fair.b)Employees compare their own job inputs and outcomes with those of others and those inequities can influence the degree of effort that employees exert.2.Equity theory says that e

44、mployees weigh what they put into a job situation(input)against what they get from it(outcome)and then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of relevant others.a)If they perceive equity,they feel that their situation is fair,that justice prevails.b)If the ratios are unequal,

45、inequity exists;that is,the employees tend to view themselves as underrewarded or overrewarded.3.When inequities occur,employees will attempt to correct them.a)The referent that employees choose to compare themselves against is an important variable in equity theory.4.The three referent categories h

46、ave been classified as“other,”“system,”and “self.”a)The other category includes other individuals with similar jobs in the same organization and also includes friends,neighbors,or professional associates.b)The system category considers organizational pay policies and procedures as well as the admini

47、stration of this system.c)The self category refers to input-outcome ratios that are unique to the individual.This category is influenced by such criteria as past jobs or family commitments.5.The choice of a particular set of referents is related to the information available about referents as well a

48、s to their perceived relevance.6.When employees envision an inequity,they may make one or more of five choices:a)Distort either their own or others inputs or outcomes.b)Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes.c)Behave so as to change their own inputs or outcomes.d)Choose a d

49、ifferent comparison referent.e)Quit their job.7.Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned with both the absolute amount of rewards and the relationship of that amount to what others receive.Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts 39 8.Inputs,such as effort,experience,education,and competen

50、ce,are compared with outcomes such as salary levels,raises,recognition,and other factors.9.Specifically,the theory establishes four propositions relating to inequitable pay:a)Given payment by time,overrewarded employees will produce more than equitably paid employees.b)Given payment by quantity of p