托福阅读方法：如何解答托福阅读否定信息类题型.docx

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1、托福阅读方法：如何解答托福阅读否定信息类题型 为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高阅读分数，下面我给大家带来托福阅读方法：如何解答托福阅读否定信息类题型，希望大家喜爱! 托福阅读方法：如何解答托福阅读否定信息类题型 托福阅读否定信息题(Negative Factual Information questions (0 to 2 questions per set )怎么做?我们先来看看它的提问方式和解答方法： 托福阅读否定信息题提问方式： 首先我们来介绍一下否定信息题，Negative Factual Information questions。这种题型的提问方式一般为： l According t

2、o the passage，which of the following is NOT true of X? l The authors description of X mentions all of the following EXCEPT ? 托福阅读否定信息题解答方法： 在解答这种题目的时候首先要留意的是避开惯性思维的影响。在前面讲过的全部题目当中，或者是平常大家的做题习惯当中，我们都是看到与原文相符或者和原文一样的选项就选，但是到了这个题目，须要选择不属于题干内容或者与原文相反的选项，这是须要留意的一点。 一般这种题目的定位范围都在原文的某一个或者两个自然段，所以第一步须要的就是依据

3、题目大定位到某个自然段，然后依据选项特征对应原文进行选题。 托福阅读否定信息题举例说明： 我们来看一个例题： Paragraph 7： The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values， by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example， people who believe that aggression is necessary and j

4、ustified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively， whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust， or who think that aggression is never justified， are less likely to behave aggressively. Paragraph 8： One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful

5、 events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings， in turn， can lead to aggressive action， but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other

6、 peoples motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people oftendistort other peoples motives. For example， they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not. 9. According to the cognitive approach described in paragraphs 7 and 8， all of the following may in

7、fluence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a persons Moral values Previous experiences with aggression Instinct to avoid aggression Beliefs about other peoples intentions 这道题目的定位范围是两个自然段，四个选项中有三个会influence the decision whether to act aggressively，有一个选项不会“影响一个人确定是否要表现的具有侵略性”，我们要选择这个选项。首先

8、，在第七自然段的其次句“Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values， by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice.”中就提到moral values，对应A 选项。其次，在第八自然段中，第四句“People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences w

9、ith aggression and their interpretation of other peoples motives.”中提到两个选项，一个是“their experiences with aggression”对应B选项，另外一个是“interpretation of other peoples motives”对应D选项。只有C选项的instinct没有提到，这道题目选择C选项。 托福阅读背景学问：人类的活动和动物的灭亡 托福阅读真题再现： 人类的活动和动物的灭亡 将overhunting，中间一个个科学家说不对，其实是climate change导致了，讲人类人前北美许多大型

10、动物，但是人类出现以后大型动物都挂了，主要缘由是人类的过度捕猎。接着说气候也是一个潜在缘由，而且一些大型动物挂了，相识rodent并没有灭亡。有举例，在人类出现以后很短的时间内动物数量急剧下降，虽然这个事实被捕鱼大丰收的状况所disguise，一个明显的证据就是一种特别的鱼到了食物链底端。 新东方老师解析： 本篇文章讲解了动物的灭亡的缘由。相像的话题可以参考tpo中文章mass extiction，文章的理解重点是要把握好说明灭亡的缘由，以及相对应所举的例子。根据不同的灭亡的缘由梳理文章的结构。 相应的背景请参考下文： As long as species have been evolving

11、, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average life-span of a species is 10 million yearscitation needed, although this varies widely between taxa. There are a variety of causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to

12、the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique", write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns, "so is each extinction . the causes for each are variedsome subtle and complex, others obvious and simple". Most simply, any species that cannot survive and re

13、produce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually

14、 over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt. Habitat degradation Habitat degradation is currently

15、 the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the speci

16、es is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species. Habitat degradation through toxicity can

17、 kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness. Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destru

18、ction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade fo

19、r protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some specie

20、s to expand their range, bringing unwelcome competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources inclu

21、ding water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. Predation, competition, and disease In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-spec

22、ies competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (many people would say premat

23、ure extinction) of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food

24、) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with

25、them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australi

26、a (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar, Hawaii (300-1000 CE), and New Zealand (1300-1500 CE), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore complete

27、ly unadapted to their predation techniques. Climate change Extinction as a result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, 305 million years ago. A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research cent

28、ers predicted that, because of climate change, 1537% of land species would be "committed to extinction" by 2050. The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region, and the Caribbean Basin. These areas might see a doubling of pre

29、sent carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species. 托福阅读背景学问：冰河时期形成缘由 托福阅读真题再现： 冰河时期形成缘由 第一段：地球周期始终被人们观测。但直到科学家M，才提出是地球的orbit三个因素共同发生造成的。Eccentric, tilt and orbit.。 其次段：三个理论。【好长一段】 第三段：三个角度改变要好多年。周期不能说明。 第四段：还有好多其他说明，有人说火山，有人说有人说 老师解析： 冰期地球表

30、面覆盖有大规模冰川的地质时期。又称为冰川时期。两次冰期之间唯一相对暖和时期，称为间冰期。地球历史上曾发生过多次冰期，最近一次是第四纪冰期。 地球在40多亿年的历史中，曾出现过多次显著降温变冷，形成冰期。特殊是在前寒武纪晚期、石炭纪至二叠纪和新生代的冰期都是持续时间很长的地质事务，通常称为大冰期。大冰期的时间尺度至少数百万年。大冰期内又有多次大幅度的气候冷暖交替和冰盖规模的扩展或退缩时期，这种扩展和退缩时期即为冰期和间冰期。 学者们提出过种.种说明，但至今没有得到令人感到满足的答案。归纳起来，主要有天文学和地球物理学成因说。 天文学成因说 天文学成因说主要考虑太阳、其他行星与地球间的相互关系。太

31、阳光度的周期改变影响地球的气候。太阳光度处于弱改变时，辐射量削减，地球变冷，乃至出现冰期气候。米兰科维奇认为，夏半年太阳辐射量的削减是导致冰期发生的可能因素。地球黄赤交角的周期改变导致气温的改变。黄赤交角指黄道与天赤道的交角，它的改变主要受行星摄动的影响。当黄赤交角大时，冬夏差别增大，年平均日射率最小，使低纬地区处于寒冷时期，有利于冰川生成。 地球物理学成因说 地球物理学成因说影响因素较多，有大气物理方面的，也有地理地质方面的。大气透亮度的影响。常见的火山活动等使大气层饱含着火山灰，透亮度低，削减了太阳辐射量，导致地球变冷。构造运动的影响。构造运动造成陆地升降、陆块位移、视极移动，变更了海陆分

32、布和环流型式，可使地球变冷。云量、蒸发和冰雪反射的反馈作用，进一步使地球变冷，促使冰期来临。大气中CO2的屏蔽作用。CO2能阻挡或减低地表热量的损失。假如大气中CO2含量增加到今日的23倍，则极地气温将上升89;假如今日大气中的CO2含量削减5560%，则中纬地带气温将下降45。在地质时期火山活动和生物活动使大气圈中CO2含量有很大改变，当CO2屏蔽作用削减到肯定程度，则可能出现冰期。 托福阅读相关背景： An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and

33、 atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed "glacial periods" (or alternatively "glacials" or "glaciations" or colloquially as "

34、;ice age"), and intermittent warm periods are called "interglacials".Glaciologically, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, we are in an interglacial period - the holocene, of the ice age that began 2.6 milli

35、on years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch, because the Greenland, Arctic, and Antarctic ice sheets still exist. Variations in Earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles) The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle

36、 has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other. Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude. There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch

37、 cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice

38、 volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milankovi? orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the

39、Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m? to 5

40、50 W/m?). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO 2 may explain this

41、 mismatch. While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's orbital elements can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacialinterglacial periods. In particula

42、r, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacialinterglacial oscillation has been 100,000 years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity and orbitalinclination. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the peri

43、od 3.00.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's obliquity (tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probab

44、ly relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system. The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller, Gordon J. F. MacDonald, and others have pointed out that those calculat

45、ions are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Alth

46、ough this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial. Another worker, William Ruddiman, has suggested a model that explains the

47、 100,000-year cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has alway

48、s been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by Didier Paillard. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles can be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The j