组织行为学精要第7版chap064882.pdf

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1、Chapter 6 Individual Decision Making 57 CHAPTER 6-INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter,students should be able to:1.Explain the six-step rational decision-making model and its assumptions.2.Identify key components in the three-component model of creativity.3.Descr

2、ibe actions of the boundedly rational decision maker.4.Define heuristics and explain how they bias decisions.5.Explain escalation of commitment.6.Identify four decision-making styles.7.Explain the implications of stages of moral development to decision making.LECTURE OUTLINE I.INTRODUCTION A.Individ

3、uals in organizations make decisions.1.Top managers determine their organizations goals,what products or services to offer,how best to organize corporate headquarters,and so on.2.Middle-and lower-level managers determine production schedules,select new employees,and decide how pay raises are to be a

4、llocated.3.Nonmanagerial employees also make decisions that affect their jobs and the organizations for which they work.4.All individuals in every organization regularly engage in decision makingthey make choices from among two or more alternatives.II.HOW SHOULD DECISIONS BE MADE?A.The Rational Deci

5、sion-Making Process 1.The optimizing decision maker is rational.a)He or she makes consistent,value-maximizing choices within specified constraints.2.The Rational Model a)See Exhibit 6-1 for the six steps in the rational decision-making model.3.The model begins by defining the problem.a)A problem exi

6、sts when there is a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs.4.Next,the decision maker needs to identify the decision criteria that will be important in solving the problem.a)Determining what is relevant to making the decision.b)The decision makers interests,values,and personal

7、 preferences are brought into the process.5.The third step requires the decision maker to weigh the previously identified criteria in order to give them correct priority in the decision.6.The fourth step requires the generation of possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the problem.a)A

8、lternatives are not yet appraised,just listed.7.Once the alternatives have been generated,the decision maker must critically analyze and evaluate each one.a)This is done by rating each alternative on each criterion.8.The final step in this model requires computing the optimal decision.a)This is done

9、 by evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative with the highest total score.Part II The Individual in the Organization 58 9.Assumptions of the Model a)Problem clarity:the problem is clear,unambiguous,and the decision maker has complete information.b)Known

10、 options:The decision maker can identify all the relevant criteria,can list all the viable alternatives,and is aware of all the possible consequences.c)Clear preferences:rationality assumes that the criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted to reflect their importance.d)Constant preferenc

11、es:specific decision criteria are constant and that the weights assigned to them are stable over time.e)No time or cost constraints:the rational decision maker can obtain full information about criteria and alternatives because it is assumed that there are no time or cost constraints.f)Maximum payof

12、f:the rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the highest perceived value.B.Improving Creativity in Decision Making 1.Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas.2.Creativity allows the decision maker to more fully appraise and understand the problem,including

13、 seeing problems others can not see.3.The most obvious value is in helping the decision maker identify all viable alternatives.4.Creative Potential a)To tap creative potential,most people have to climb out of their psychological ruts.b)Need to learn how to think about a problem in divergent ways.5.P

14、eople differ in their inherent creativity.a)A study of lifetime creativity of 461 men and women found that fewer than 1 percent were exceptionally creative.But 10 percent were highly creative,and about 60 percent were somewhat creative.6.Three-Component Model of Creativity a)Based on considerable re

15、search,this model proposed that individual creativity requires:expertise,creative-thinking skills,and intrinsic task motivation(1)See Exhibit 6-2.(2)Studies confirm that the higher the level of each of these three components,the higher the creativity is.(3)Expertise is the foundation of all creative

16、 work.The potential for creativity is enhanced when individuals have abilities,knowledge,proficiencies,and similar expertise in their fields of endeavor.(4)Creative-thinking skills encompass personality characteristics associated with creativity,the ability to use analogies,and a talent for seeing t

17、he familiar in a different light.(5)Intrinsic task motivation is the desire to work on something because it is interesting,involving,exciting,satisfying,or personally challenging.This component turns creativity potential into actual creative ideas.b)Organizational factors that impede creativity incl

18、ude expected evaluation,surveillance,external motivators,competition,constrained choice.III.HOW DECISIONS ARE ACTUALLY MADE IN ORGANIZATIONS A.Are decision makers in organizations rational?1.When decision makers are faced with a simple problem having few alternative courses of action,and when the co

19、st of searching out and evaluating alternatives is low,the rational model provides a fairly accurate description of the decision-making process.Chapter 6 Individual Decision Making 59 2.But such situations are the exception.Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model.B.Bounded

20、Rationality 1.College search example 2.When faced with a complex problem,most people respond by reducing the problem to a level at which it can be readily understood.a)People“satisfice.”That is,they seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient.3.Because of the limitations of the human mind mo

21、st individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality.a)They construct simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all of their complexity.4.How does it work?a)A problem is identified,the search for criteria and alternatives begins.b)The decision

22、 maker limits alternatives to the more conspicuous choices.(1)Such choices are easy to find and tend to be highly visible.(2)They represent familiar criteria and tried-and-true solutions.c)The limited set of alternatives is reviewed.(1)Review is limited.(2)It begins with alternatives that differ onl

23、y in a relatively small degree from the choice currently in effect.(3)The decision maker proceeds to review alternatives only until he or she identifies an alternative that is good enoughone that meets an acceptable level of performance.d)The first alternative that meets the“good enough”criterion en

24、ds the search.e)So the final solution represents a“satisficing”choice rather than an optimal one.5.The order in which alternatives are considered is critical in determining which alternative is selected because the“satisficing”choice will be the first acceptable one the decision maker encounters.a)S

25、olutions that depart least from the status quo and meet the decision criteria are most likely to be selected.C.Intuition 1.Managers regularly use their intuition,and this may actually help improve decision making.2.Intuitive decision making is an unconscious process created out of distilled experien

26、ce.a)It complements the rational approach.b)Research on chess playing provides an excellent illustration of how intuition works.(1)Experience allows the expert to recognize a situation and draw upon previously learned information associated with that situation in order to to quickly arrive at a deci

27、sion.(2)The result is that the intuitive decision maker can decide rapidly with what appears to be very limited information.D.Identifying Problems 1.One persons problem is another persons acceptable status quo.So how do decision makers identify and select problems?2.Problems that are visible tend to

28、 have a higher probability of being selected than ones that are important.a)It is easier to recognize visible problems.Part II The Individual in the Organization 60 b)Remember that we are concerned with decision making in organizations.Decision makers want to appear competent and“on top of problems.

29、”This desire motivates them to focus on problems that are visible to others.3.If a decision maker faces a conflict between selecting a problem that is important to the organization and one that is important to the decision maker,self-interest tends to win.E.Developing Alternatives 1.Since decision m

30、akers seek a“satisficing”resolution,they tend to show a minimal use of creativity.2.The search process is kept simple,largely confined to the neighborhood of the current alternative.3.The evidence indicates that decision making is incremental rather than comprehensive.a)Decision makers rarely formul

31、ate new and unique problem definitions and alternatives and rarely explore unfamiliar territory.b)This approach also makes it unnecessary for the decision maker to thoroughly examine an alternative and its consequences.4.The decision maker takes small steps toward an objective by making successive c

32、omparisons.F.Making Choices 1.In order to avoid information overload,decision makers rely on heuristics,or judgmental shortcuts,in decision making.2.Availability Heuristic a)Example of peoples fear of flying more than from fear of driving a car.The reason for the fear is that many people think flyin

33、g is more dangerous.It isnt,of course.3.An availability heuristic is the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.a)Events that evoke emotions,that are particularly vivid,or that have occurred recently tend to be most available in our memory.4.Repr

34、esentative Heuristic a)Example of inner-city African American boys in the United States talk about playing basketball in the NBA.In reality they have a better chance of becoming a medical doctor than they do of playing in the NBA.b)A representative heuristic assesses the likelihood of an occurrence

35、by trying to match it with a preexisting category.5.Escalation of Commitment a)It is an increased commitment to a previous decision,often in spite of negative information.b)It has been well documented that individuals escalate commitment to a failing course of action when they view themselves as res

36、ponsible for the failure.They“throw good money after bad”to demonstrate that their initial decision was not wrong and to avoid having to admit they made a mistake.c)Implications for managerial decisions.(1)Many an organization have suffered large losses because a manager was determined to prove that

37、 his or her original decision was right by continuing to commit resources to what was a lost cause from the beginning.(2)Also,consistency is a characteristic often associated with effective leaders.G.Individual Differences Chapter 6 Individual Decision Making 61 1.Two individual differences seem par

38、ticularly relevant to decision making in organizationsdecision-making styles and level of moral development.2.Decision-Making Styles a)The foundation of the model is the recognition that people differ along two dimensions.(1)The first is their way of thinking.(2)The other dimension addresses a perso

39、ns tolerance for ambiguity.b)When these two dimensions are diagrammed,they form four styles of decision making.(1)See Exhibit 6-3.Four styles are directive,analytical,conceptual,and behavioral.c)Directive style(1)Low tolerance for ambiguity and seek rationality.(2)Efficient and logical.Decisions are

40、 based on minimal information after the consideration of few alternatives.(3)Directive types make decisions fast,and they focus on the short run.d)Analytical style(1)Greater tolerance for ambiguity than do directive decision makers.(2)They desire more information and consider more alternatives than

41、do directives.(3)Characterized as careful decision makers with the ability to adapt or cope with new situations.e)Conceptual style(1)Very broad in their outlook and consider many alternatives.(2)Focus is long range,and they are very good at finding creative solutions to problems.f)Behavioral style(1

42、)Characterizes decision makers who work well with others.(2)They are concerned with the achievement of peers and subordinates.(3)They are receptive to suggestions from others and rely heavily on meetings for communicating.(4)This type of manager tries to avoid conflict and seeks acceptance.g)Most ma

43、nagers have characteristics that fall into more than one.(1)But they have a dominant style and a backup style.(2)Business students,lower-level managers,and top executives tend to score highest in the analytic style.h)Focusing on decision styles can be useful for helping you understand how two equall

44、y intelligent people,with access to the same information,can differ in their decision making and their final choices.3.Level of Moral Development a)Many decisions have an ethical dimension.b)Research confirms the existence of three levels of moral development,each comprises two stages.(1)See Exhibit

45、 6-4.(2)At each successive stage,an individuals moral judgment grows less and less dependent on outside influences.c)Preconventional.Individuals respond to notions of right or wrong only when personal consequences are involved.d)Conventional.Reasoning at this level indicates that moral value resides

46、 in maintaining the conventional order and the expectations of others.e)Principled.Individuals make a clear effort to define moral principles apart from the authority of the groups to which they belong or society in general.4.Conclusions Part II The Individual in the Organization 62 a)People proceed

47、 through the six stages in a lock-step fashion.They gradually move up a ladder,stage by stage.b)There is no guarantee of continued development.Development can terminate at any stage.c)Most adults are at stage four.They are limited to obeying the rules and laws of society.d)The higher the stage a man

48、ager reaches,the more he or she will be predisposed to make ethical decisions.H.Organizational Constraints 1.The organization itself constrains decision makers.2.Performance evaluation a)Managers are strongly influenced by the criteria by which they are evaluated.3.Reward systems a)The organizations

49、 reward system influences decision makers by suggesting to them what choices are preferable in terms of personal payoff.4.System-imposed time constraints a)Organizations impose deadlines on decisions.5.Historical precedents a)Decisions have a context;individual decisions are more accurately characte

50、rized as points in a stream of decisions.b)Decisions made in the past are ghosts that continually haunt current choices.I.Cultural Differences 1.The rational model does not acknowledge cultural differences.2.The cultural background of the decision maker can significantly influence his or her selecti