组织行为学精要第7版chap074228.pdf

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1、Chapter 7 Foundations of Group Behavior 71 CHAPTER 7-FOUNDATIONS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter,students should be able to:1.Differentiate between formal and informal groups.2.Explain why people join groups.3.Describe how role requirements change in different situati

2、ons.4.Explain the importance of the Hawthorne studies.5.Describe the importance of the Asch studies.6.Identify the implications of social loafing.7.Outline the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups.8.Explain the effect of diversity on group performance.9.Contrast groupthink and groupshift.LE

3、CTURE OUTLINE I.DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS A.Definition 1.A group is defined as two or more individuals,interacting and interdependent,who come together to achieve particular objectives.Groups can be either formal or informal.a)By formal,we mean a group that is defined by the organizations stru

4、cture,with designated work assignments establishing tasks and work groups.b)In formal groups the behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals.c)In contrast,informal groups are alliances that are neither structured nor organizationally determined.In t

5、he work environment these groups form naturally as responses to the need for social contact.2.Subclassify groups into command,task,interest,or friendship categories.a)Command and task groups are dictated by the formal organization,whereas interest and friendship groups are informal alliances.b)The c

6、ommand group is determined by the organizational chart.c)Task groups,also organizationally determined,represent persons working together to complete a job.(1)A task groups boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior.(2)All command groups are also task groups,but the reverse nee

7、d not be true.d)Groups may affiliate to attain a specific objective.This is an interest group.e)Friendship groups often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics or social allegiances.3.Informal groups provide a very important function by satisfying their members

8、 social needs.4.Exhibit 7-1 summarizes the most popular reasons why people join a group.II.BASIC GROUP CONCEPTS A.Groups have a structure that shapes the behavior of their members.B.Roles 1.Laura Campbell is a buyer with Marks&Spencer,the large British retailer.Her job requires her to play a number

9、of roles;that is,to engage in a set of expected behavior patterns that are attributed to occupying a given position in a social unit.2.Like Laura Campbell,we all are required to play a number of roles,and our behavior varies with the role were playing.Part III Groups in the Organization 72 3.The und

10、erstanding of role behavior would be dramatically simplified if each of us chose one role and played it regularly and consistently.a)We are required to play diverse roles,both on and off our jobs.b)Different groups impose different role requirements on people.4.Role research conclusions:a)People pla

11、y multiple roles.b)People learn roles from the stimuli around them:friends,books,movies,television.c)People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the situation and its demands clearly require major changes.d)People often experience role conflict when compliance with one ro

12、le requirement is at odds with another.5.What is the value of a knowledge of roles?a)It helps to think in terms of what group theyre predominantly identifying with at the time and what behaviors would be expected of them in that role.b)It allows the manager to more accurately predict the employees b

13、ehavior.C.Norms 1.Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members.2.Each group will establish its own set of norms.3.Probably the most widespread normsand the ones with which managers tend to be most concerneddeal with performance-related processes.a)W

14、ork groups typically provide their members with explicit cues on how hard they should work,how to get the job done,their level of output,appropriate communication channels,and the like.b)These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employees performance.4.A key point about norms is

15、that groups exert pressure to bring members behavior into conformity with the groups standards.5.The Hawthorne studies a)Full-scale appreciation of the importance norms play in influencing worker behavior did not occur until the early 1930s.b)This enlightenment grew out of a series of studies undert

16、aken at Western Electric Companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932.(1)Initiated by Western Electric officials.(2)Later overseen by Harvard professor Elton Mayo.c)The Hawthorne studies concluded that a workers behavior and sentiments were closely related.Group influences were signific

17、ant in affecting individual behavior.Group standards were highly effective in establishing individual worker output,and money was less of a factor in determining worker output than were group standards,sentiments,and security.d)The Hawthorne researchers began by examining the relation between the ph

18、ysical environment and productivity.(1)Illumination and other aspects of working conditions were manipulated.(2)Initial findings contradicted anticipated results.e)Results varied but in no case were the increase or decrease in output in proportion to the increase or decrease in illumination.(1)Resea

19、rchers introduced a control group.An experimental group was presented with varying intensity of illumination,while the controlled unit worked under a constant illumination intensity.Chapter 7 Foundations of Group Behavior 73 f)Again,the results were bewildering.Output rose for both the control and t

20、he experimental groups whether light was raised or lowered.(1)The Hawthorne researchers concluded that illumination intensity was only a minor influence among the many influences on an employees productivity.g)A second set of experiments was performed in the relay assembly test room at Western Elect

21、ric.(1)A small group of women was isolated from the main work group so that their behavior could be more carefully observed.(2)They went about their job of assembling telephones,the only significant difference was the placement in the room of a research assistant who acted as an observer keeping rec

22、ords of output,rejects,working conditions,and describing everything that happened in a daily log.(3)Observations over a multiyear period found that this small groups output increased steadily.(4)The number of personal absences and those due to sickness were approximately one third of those recorded

23、by women in the regular production department.(5)What became evident was that this groups performance was significantly influenced by its status of being a“special”group.h)A third study in the bank wiring observation room was introduced to ascertain the effect of a sophisticated wage incentive plan.

24、(1)The assumption was that individual workers would maximize their productivity when they saw that it was directly related to economic rewards.(2)The most important finding of this study was that employees did not individually maximize their outputs.(3)Output became controlled by a group norm that d

25、etermined what was a proper days work.(a)Output was not only restricted,but individual workers gave erroneous reports.i)The group was operating well below its capability.(1)Members were afraid that if they significantly increased their output,the unit incentive rate would be cut,the expected daily o

26、utput would be increased,layoffs might occur,or slower workers would be reprimanded.(2)The group established its idea of a fair outputneither too much nor too little.j)The norms the group established included a number of “donts.”(1)Dont be a rate-buster,turning out too much work.(2)Dont be a chisele

27、r,turning out too little work.(3)Dont be a squealer on any of your peers.k)How did the group enforce these norms?Their methods were neither gentle nor subtle.(1)They included sarcasm,name-calling,ridicule,and even physical punches on the upper arms of members who violated the groups norms.(2)Members

28、 would also ostracize individuals whose behavior was against the groups interest.D.Conformity and the Asch Studies.1.Group members want acceptance by the group.a)Evidence from the now-classic studies undertaken by Solomon Asch,shows that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to cha

29、nge their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups standard.2.Study design a)Asch made up groups of seven or eight people who sat in a classroom and were asked to compare two cards held by the experimenter.Part III Groups in the Organization 74 b)One card had one line,the other had three lin

30、es of varying length.(1)See Exhibit 7-2.c)The object was to announce aloud which of the three lines matched the single line.(1)The difference in line length was quite obvious;under ordinary conditions,subjects made less than one percent errors.d)But what happens if all the members in the group begin

31、 to give incorrect answers?e)The experiment began with several sets of matching exercises.All the subjects gave the right answers.On the third set,however,the first subject gave an obviously wrong answer.f)Asch demonstrated that over many experiments and many trials,subjects conformed in about 35 pe

32、rcent of the trials;that is,the subjects gave answers they knew were wrong but were consistent with the replies of other group members.g)The results suggest that there are group norms that press us toward conformity.E.Cohesiveness 1.Groups differ in their cohesiveness;that is,the degree to which mem

33、bers are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.a)Cohesiveness is important because it has been found to be related to the groups productivity.2.The relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the group.a)The more cohe

34、sive the group,the more its members will follow its goals.b)See summary of results in Exhibit 7-3.3.What can you do as a manager if you want to encourage group cohesiveness?a)Make the group smaller.b)Encourage agreement with group goals.c)Increase the time members spend together.d)Increase the statu

35、s of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group.e)Stimulate competition with other groups.f)Give rewards to the group rather than to members.g)Physically isolate the group.F.Size 1.Size affects group behavior.a)Smaller groups complete tasks faster than larger ones.b)

36、If the group is engaged in problem solving,however,large groups consistently get better marks than their smaller counterparts.c)Large groupswith a dozen or more membersare good for gaining diverse input.(1)If the goal of the group is fact finding,larger groups should be more effective.d)Smaller grou

37、ps are better at doing something productive with that input.(1)Groups of approximately seven members tend to be more effective for taking action.2.Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.3.A common stereotype about

38、 groups is that the sense of team spirit spurs individual effort and enhances the groups overall productivity.4.But in the late 1920s,a German psychologist named Ringelmann discovered that groups of three people exerted a force only two-and-a-half times the average individual performance.a)Groups of

39、 eight collectively achieved less than four times the solo rate.Chapter 7 Foundations of Group Behavior 75 5.Social loafing may be due to a belief that others in the group are not carrying their fair share.G.Composition 1.Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge.2.Heterogeneou

40、s groupsthose composed of dissimilar individualsare more likely to have diverse abilities and information and are more effective than homogeneous groups.3.When a group is heterogeneous in terms of gender,personalities,opinions,abilities,skills,and perspectives,there is an increased probability that

41、the group will possess the needed characteristics to complete its tasks effectively.a)There may be more conflict.4.The evidence indicates that racial or national differences interfere with group processes,at least in the short term.a)These difficulties seem to dissipate with time.b)The differences d

42、isappear after about three months.5.Group demography occurs when members of a group share a common demographic attribute such as age,sex,race,educational level.a)Groups and organizations are composed of cohortsa group of individuals who hold a common attribute.b)Group demography suggests that attrib

43、utes such as age or the date that someone joins a specific work group or organization should help predict turnover.(1)The logic states that turnover will be greater among those with dissimilar experiences because communication is more difficult,conflict and power struggles are more likelyand severe

44、when they occur,and this in turns leads to less-attractive group membership and voluntary turnover.H.Status 1.Status is a prestige grading,position,or rank within a group.a)It may be formally imposed by a group.b)More often,we deal with status in an informal sense.c)Informal status is not necessaril

45、y less important than the formal variety.2.Status has been shown to have some interesting effects on the power of norms and pressure to conform.a)High-status members often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than are other group members.b)High-status people also are better able to resist co

46、nformity pressures than their lower-status peers.c)These findings explain why many star athletes,famous actors,top-performing salespeople,and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or to the social norms that constrain others.3.Its important for group members to believe that the status h

47、ierarchy is equitable.a)Any perceived inequity creates disequilibrium resulting in various types of corrective behavior.4.The trappings that go with formal positions are also important elements in maintaining equity.a)Inequity between the perceived ranking of an individual and the status accoutermen

48、ts generates status incongruence.5.Even though members of groups generally agree among themselves on status criteria and hence tend to rank individuals fairly closely,conflict can arise when individuals move between groups whose status criteria are different or when groups are formed of individuals

49、with heterogeneous backgrounds.Part III Groups in the Organization 76 III.GROUP DECISION MAKING A.The belief that two heads are better than one has long been accepted as a basic component of North American and many other countries legal systems.1.It has expanded to the point that today many decision

50、s in organizations are made by groups,teams,or committees.B.The Individual versus the Group 1.A major plus of individual decision making is speed.2.Individual decisions have clear accountability.3.Individual decisions tend to convey consistent values.a)Although individuals are not perfectly consiste