英语写作系列段落的构成与拓展讲义高考英语二轮复习.pdf

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1、 1 段落的构成(Paragraph Structure)段落是由表达单一中心思想(controlling idea or central idea)的一组句子(包括主题句 topic sentence，扩展句 supporting sentences 及结论句concluding sentence)构成，是文章结构的基本独立单位。一、主题句 主题句(topic sentence)是表达段落主题的句子。它用以概括段落大意，要求全段其他文字都围绕它扩展。例：My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with

2、others.Dont argue with parents;they will think you dont love them.Dont argue with children;they will think themselves victimized.Dont argue with spouses;they will think you are a tiresome mate.Dont argue with strangers;they will think you are not friendly.My mothers rules,in fact,can be summed up in

3、 two words:Dont argue.主题句中提出的“certain rules”指的是什么？扩展句中通过四个“Dont argue”逐一加以交代。从结构来看，这是一个比较典型的段落，它包括了主题句，扩展句和结论句。1.主题句的位置 2 主题句通常放在段落的开端，其特点是开门见山地摆出问题，然后加以详细说明。其作用是使文章的结构更清晰，更具说服力，便于读者迅速地把握主题和想象全段的内容。主题句可以放在段中起到承上启下的作用，或放在段尾起概括全段的作用。但考虑到初学者的英语驾驭能力，建议学生在四级考试中尽量采用将主题句置于段首的写作手法。例：Our life today depends v

4、ery much on energy.In towns and in villages,on farms and in factories,machines have made life easier than it used to be.The machines use energy,and energy is needed for heating,lighting,communications,carrying goodseverything.Factories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the thi

5、ngs that we use and buy and sell.这段文字所讲的主要是能源问题。第一句就概括性地提出“我们目前的生活很大程度上依赖于能源”。而随后出现的三句都是具体事例，对第一句进行说明和论述。因此可以断定第一句为该段的主题句。例：(主题句)No one can avoid being influenced byadvertisements.(扩展句1)Much as we may pride ourselves on our good taste,we are no longer free to choose the things we want,for advertisin

6、g exerts a subtle influence 3 on us.(扩展句 2)In their efforts to persuade us to buy this or that product,advertisers have made a close study of human nature and have classified all our little weakness.以上这段由三句话组成。第一句是主题句，直截了当指出无人不受广告影响这个主题，接着列举两个扩展句对其补充和支持，指出我们已无法自由选择所需的商品，理由是广告商已仔细研究了我们的心理，并完全掌握了我们的弱点

7、。句子衔接自然，步步紧扣主题。2.如何写好主题句中的关键词 段落的主题句对主题的限定主要是通过句中的关键词来表现的。关键词要尽量写得具体些。对“具体”的要求包括两个方面：一是要具体到能控制和限制段落的发展：二是要具体到能说明段落发展的方法。准确地把握关键词是清楚地表达段落主题、写好段落主题句的重要前提之一。在上面的两例中，主题句的关键词分别为：depends very much on energy;no one can avoid being influenced.但它只是限制了段落发展的部分内容，并没有告诉读者该用哪种方法扩展，是用因果关系法还是用分类法？修正：He can fix a bi

8、cycle himself in several simple steps.修正：There are several reasons why he can fix a bicycle himself.例：She tries to improve her looks.4 斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。她试着改变她面容的理由是什么？或者她采取什么方法来改善呢？我们无法从关键词中清楚得知。修正：She tries many ways to improve her looks.修正：There are some reasons why she tries to improve her looks.3.

9、如何写好主题句的中心思想 主题句由两部分组成，即主题(topic)和中心思想(controlling idea)。中心思想的作用是导向(control)和制约(limit)。我们前面谈到的关键词就反映了中心思想。所谓导向就是规定段落的发展脉络，所谓制约就是限制主题的覆盖范围，两者不可分割。没有导向，内容就会离题或偏题；没有制约，内容就可能超出一个段落所能容纳的范围。对于初学写作的人来说，“导向”的重要性容易理解，但如果由他们自己来构思一个主题句，就可能忽视“制约”这一面。例：There are two ways in which one can own a book.The first is

10、the property right you establish by paying for it,just as you have made it a part of yourself and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by writing in it.本段的主题句如果没有 in which 引出的定语从句，那么 two ways 不仅不能起制约作用，而且也不能起导向作用，句子本身读起来就会觉 5 得欠缺点什么。Exercise is beneficial to your heart.A 22-year study was c

11、onducted by doctors in California.They found that people who work at physical jobs experience fewer heart attacks than other people.These active people work all the time at moderate speeds;their daily routine gives them an adequate amount of exercise and helps them stay in shape.“Exercise is benefic

12、ial”这是毫无疑义的，但主题句中如不加上“to your heart”来加以 control 和 limit，那就流于空泛。因此，紧紧把握主题句中 controlling idea 的导向和制约作用，是主题句写作成功的关键。二、扩展句 1.主要扩展句 主要扩展句(major supporting statement)的主要特点是：围绕段落主题句扩展的每一个扩展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明，句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。例：(主题句)There are several factors affecting climate.(扩展句 1)One factor is the amo

13、unt of sunlight received.(扩展句2)Altitude,or the height above sea level,also determines climate.(扩展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land.(扩展句 6 4)In addition,climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.主题句指出影响气候的几个因素，然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素。第一种是太阳光的接收量，第二种是海拔高度，第三句

14、和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素。2.次要扩展句 次要扩展句(minor supporting statement)是指对主要扩展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明，它从属于某一个或某几个扩展句。例：(主题句)I dont teach because teaching is not easy for me.(主要扩展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living:mechanic,carpenter,writer.(主要扩展句 2)For me,teaching is

15、a red-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking-stomach profession.(次要扩展句 1)Red-eye,because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing.(次要扩展句 2)Sweaty-palm,because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom,sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am.(次要扩展句 3)Sinking-stomach,becau

16、se I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.从属于主要扩展句 2 的三个次要扩展句起着解释说明的作用，分别解 7 释 red-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking-stomach 的含义，这就更加形象生动地证明了“teaching is not easy”这个主题。3.主要扩展句与次要扩展句的关系 主要扩展句与次要扩展句的关系基本可以遵循以下规则：1)每个主要扩展句都应该是对主题句中表示主要思想的关键词的直接、明确的说明。2)每个次要扩展句都应该说明它的

17、主要扩展句。3)含有讨论说明或分析的问题通常既要有主要扩展素材，又要有次要扩展素材。三、结尾句 结尾句是指用一句话将某段落的内容进行归纳总结，引发读者对段落的进一步认识。例：There are many problems with advertisements.Sometimes,people consider them as a bad thing because many of the goods sound good.Some advertisements are rather confusing,and often deceive consumers into 8 buying goo

18、ds of poor quality.The solutions to these problems is that a necessary law should be worked out.Otherwise some advertisements will be harmful to the society.该段的结尾句是最后一句，说出了解决问题的办法以及如果不加以解决会产生的不良后果。学习者需要特别注意的是段落结尾句的写作需要简明扼要，符合主题句的主旨，而且不能简单地重复主题句。9 段落的扩展(Paragraph Development)一、概述 句子是段落的构成要件，熟悉了段落结构之后

19、如何使用合适恰当的方法扩展整个段落就成为写作的重中之重，本节将就段落展开的方法进行论述，从多个方面探讨段落扩展的方法。二、段落扩展的方法 1.描述法 2.定义法 3.分类法 4.比较法 5.因果法 6.论证法 7.数据法 8.引用法 9.例证法 10.综合法 1.描述法 描述法(description)指描绘某事物的样子、声音、味道等。作者可以通 1 0 过外表、行动或变化用语言描绘一个人，一个物体，一个地方或一个场面。(1)示范段落分析 例：Tsunami is Japanese for“harbor wave”.It is,in fact,a series of waves which t

20、ravel outward on the ocean surface in all directions in a kind of ripple effect.Since the waves can start out hundreds of miles long and only a few feet high,they would not necessarily be noticeable to a passing ship or a plane flying overhead.As the waves get closer to shore,they decrease in speed

21、and increase in height.They approach the coastline as a series of high and low water levels,approximately 10-45 minutes apart,with their speed decreasing to about 30-40 mi/hr(50-60 km/ht).The depth of the water and the layout of the coastal area can affect the tsunamis configuration when it hits the

22、 shore.It can grow to 30-50 meters high and smash into the shore as a wall of water or sweep over the land as a fast-moving flood.Although tsunamis can happen in any large body of water,most occur in the Pacific Ocean.主题句：A tsunami is a series of waves.细节 1:extension 细节 2:speed(statistics used)细节 3:

23、height(statistics used)1 1 在上面段落中，作者用细节(包括数据)描述了海啸的宽度(extension)、速度(speed)和高度(height)，从而告诉读者海啸是什么样子。例：The kitchen was in a mess.Along the left wall werethe counter and sink covered with dirty dishes and garbage.On the far wall the washing machine groaned under a load of filthy clothes.Right next to

24、the door where I was standing,on my right,I saw a table cluttered with old newspapers,an overturned catsup bottle,and a wet,half-eaten hot dog.At the far end of the right wall the refrigerator stood with the door open,a jar of milk dripping down from the top shelf.It was the messiest kitchen I had e

25、ver seen.主题句：The kitchen was in a mess.细节 1：Along the left wallcounter and sink 细节 2:On the far wallwashing machine 细节 3:Right next to the door,on my righttable 细节 4:At the far end of the right wall refrigerator 结论句：It was the messiest kitchen I had ever seen.(2)使用描述法扩展段落的建议 1 主题句给读者一个深刻的印象 1 2 写一段好

26、的描述段落要注意两个方面：首先给读者一个深刻的印象，然后运用充分的细节。这种深刻的印象必须首先吸引读者，因此不要在主题句中用太琐碎的东西冲淡这一印象。比较下面两个主题句：a.The kitchen is in a mess.b.The kitchen is a place where the hostess does almost all the housework and as a consequence it is not always attractive and neat.显然，前一句主题句比后一句更吸引读者，因为它能给人以更深刻的印象。提供充足的细节 具体和生动的细节是成功的描述所不

27、可缺少的。在海啸一例中，作者通过海啸外表的生动细节以及速度和高度的具体数据描述海啸。在厨房一例中，主题句后，作者提供细节来描绘厨房是怎样的乱七八糟。记住不要提供无用的细节使读者失望。使用空间顺序法组织段落 好的描述还在于把一大堆具体的细节按空间顺序组成一个整体。在海啸一例中，作者按照从表面到海底，从远到近的顺序描绘。在厨房一例中，作者按照 从左到右，从近到远的顺序描绘。使用有新意的明喻和暗喻 1 3 明喻(Similes)和暗喻(metaphors)可使描述更加生动。但要尽量避免使用已经用得太滥的比喻。2.定义法 定义法(definition)就是解释某事物是什么，不是什么。写下定义段落时，通

28、常把概念或要下定义的事物置于一个大的类别中，然后解释该事物与同一类别的其他事物有何不同。下定义法多用作推展段落的辅助方法。在科普文章的写作中，定义法是必不可少的。通过下定义，可以使读者对该事物有一个更直接的认识。常出现在定义法中的词语有：refer to,mean，call 等。(1)示范段落分析 例：Automation refers to the introduction of electronic control and automation operation of productive machinery.It reduces the human factors,mental and

29、 physical,in production,and is designed to make possible the manufacture of more goods with fewer workers.The development of automation in American industry has been called the“Second Industrial Revolution.本段文字使我们了解了“automation”和“Second Industrial Revolution”两个概念，分别由“refers to”和“been called”引出。1 4 例

30、：Pencil is a pointed implement used in writing or drawing to apply graphite or a similar colored solid to any surface,especially paper.From prehistoric times lumps of colored earth or chalk were used as markers.The Egyptians ruled lines with metallic lead,as did medieval monks.The so-called lead pen

31、cil-a rod of graphite encased in wood-came into use in the 16th cent.From the late 18th century,pulverized graphite was mixed with clay to bind it and to provide different degrees of hardness-the more clay,the harder the pencil.Today the mixture is forced through dies,cut to the required length,and

32、kiln-fired.The rods are laid in grooves of a thin board,a similar board is placed over them,and the wood is shaped into pencils,usually of round or hexagonal cross section.Pencils are also manufactured with cores of colored pigments mixed with clay and wax and of other materials.Mechanical pencils a

33、re commonly made of metal or plastic,the cores(or leads)being advanced by operating a screw mechanism or a propel-repel ejector mechanism.本段文字以定义法对“pencil”进行了详细的解释说明。(2)使用定义法扩展段落的建议 以正式的定义开始 一个正式的定义段落通常把要定义的术语置于一个概类中，然后指出该术语与其他同类别事物有什么不同。在示范段落中，要定义的术语 1 5 是“pencil”，属于概类“instrument”。2 用描述、举例或比较对比方法扩充

34、定义 在正式的定义之后，必须更详细地解释该术语的意思，可以使用描述法或举例法。比较对比法也可以用于扩充定义，对比法陈述该事物不是什么，比较法陈述该事物像什么。3.分类法 在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法(classification)，即通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类，分别加以叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识。分类法中经常使用的词语有kind,type,group,thought,way,class,part,element,factor,aspect,division,characteristic,subdivision,reasons,category 等。(1)示范段落分析 例：Ev

35、er since humans have lived on the earth,they have made use of various forms of communication.Generally,this expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech.When there is a language barrier,communication is accomplished through sign language in which motions stand for letters,

36、words and ideas.Tourists and the people unable to hear or speak have had to resort to this form of expression.Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid and exact and can be used 1 6 internationally;spelling,however,cannot.Body language transmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions,either

37、intentionally or unintentionally.A nod signifies approval,while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction.Other forms of non-linguistic language can be found in signal flags,Morse code,and picture signs.主题句：They have made use of various forms of communication.分类词(Classifier)：forms 列举词(Listing S

38、ignals)：generally,when,other 分类(Categories)：1.oral speech 2.sign language 例：on linguistic language.There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library.First,there are books on all subjects,both in English and in many other languages.These books are organized according to s

39、ubject,title,and author in a central filing system called card catalog.Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks.Second,there are reference materials,which include encyclopedias,dictionaries,bibliographies,atlases,etc.and which generally must

40、be used in the library itself.Third,there are periodicalsmagazines,news-papers,pamphletswhich are filed alphabetically in racks or which have been microfilmed to conserve space.Like reference works,1 7 periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library.主题句:There are three basic kinds of material

41、s that can be found in any good library.分类词(Classifier)：kinds 列举词(Listing Signals):first,second,third 分类(Categories)：1.books on all subjects 2.reference materials 3.Periodicals(2)使用分类法扩展段落的建议 依据一个原则分类 所分类别必须互不包容 分类必须完整 运用熟悉度方法排列 使用分类词和列举符号 4.比较法 比较法(comparison&contrast)是指将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析的一种常用的思

42、维方法。通过对比，更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点。常用于比较法的过渡连接词有：than，compared with 等。(1)示范段落分析 1 8 例：The heart of an electronic computer lies in its vacuum tubes,or transistors.Its electronic circuits work a thousand times faster than the nicer cells in the human brain.A problem that might take a human being a long time

43、to solve can be solved by a computer in one minute.在这段文字里，作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快，首先将它与人脑进行了比较，“a thousand times faster than”；而后，又将这一概念具体到了“problem”上，通过对比使读者从“.a long time in one minute”上有更加直观的认识。例：Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs.People living in the city are constantly expose

44、d to the hustle and bustle of urban life.But life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more lowkey than in the city.If city dwellers want to see trees and grass,they must go to one of the public parks.On the other hand,the streets of many suburban communities are lined with tre

45、es and shrubs,and each house has its own grassy yard.A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment,but people living in suburban areas have much fewer access of it.该段落所用的支配方法是对比。作者对比城市生 1 9 活与城郊生活。(2)使用比较法扩展段落的建议 弄清比较或对比的基点。在比较或对比时，第一步是确定比较/对比的基点。在示范段落中，作者把对比基于生活步调、视野和娱乐上。用逐事

46、比较或逐点比较的方法组织比较或对比段落。一旦确定了比较/对比基点，作者就可以用以下两种方式之一推展段落：逐事比较(item-by-item)或逐点比较(pointbypoint)。逐事比较重点放在被比较和对比的特定事物上，先叙述 A 事物，再叙述 B 事物。逐点比较重点放在两事物中每个事物的各个特征上，先叙述每个事物某一特征，再叙述每个事物的另一特征。例：比较“motorcycle”和“automobile”的异同：逐事比较(item-by-item)I.Motorcycle A.Expense B.Upkeep C.Safety.Automobile A.Expense B.Upkeep C

47、.Safety 逐点比较(pointbypoint)I.Expense A.Motorcycle B.Automobile.Upkeep A.Motorcycle B.Automobile.Safety A.Motorcycle B.Automobile 2 0 运用连接词语保持连贯。5.因果法 因果法(cause and effect)通常用来回答“why?”的问题。原因(cause)指的是导致结果的发生在过去的事情，结果(effect)指的是已发生的事情将会产生的后果。在阐述某一现象的段落中，常采用因果分析法。用于因果分析法的连接词有：because,so,as aresult 等。(1)

48、示范段落分析 例：The role of women in todays society is changing.One reason is that women have begun to assert themselves as independent people through the womens movement.Also,women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home.Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and

49、interests serve as role models for other women.Moreover,men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.主题句：The role of women in todays society is changing.原因：changing 结果：1.Women have begun to assert themselves as independent people thro

50、ugh 2 1 the womens movement.2 Increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women.3.Men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.例：Many people are worried about what television has done