大宗商品概览：腰果特刊.docx

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1、CONTENTSAbbreviations2INTRODUCTION 7CHAPTER I CASHEW TREES, KERNELS AND BY-PRODUCTS 11Trees 122.1 Kernels13Shelling132.1.1 Grading raw cashew nuts 14Grading cashew kernels142.2 By-products15Nut shell liquid 152.2.1 Shell cake 15Apple152.2.2 Testa16Gum 16CHAPTER II SUPPLY, DEMANDAND PRICES 17Producti

2、on 183.1 Trade21Raw cashew nuts 213.1.1 Kernels 24Prices27CHAPTER III POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES ft9Adding value to raw cashew nuts and cashew by-products 304.1.1 Raw cashew nuts31Cashew by-products 324.2 Policies for value addition in the cashew sector 33India and Viet Nam334.2.1 Challe

3、nges for cashew processors in Africa34Policies in cashew-growing countries in Africa354.3 Summary 36CONCLUSION 39REFERENCES 412. CASHEW TREES, KERNELS AND BY-PRODUCTSThe cashew industry is based on and focused on the production of cashew kernels. However, the cashew value chain contains a number of

4、by-products that have the potential to add value to and diversify revenue from cashew production (figure 2). This chapter reviews the value chains of the cashew kernel and its various by-products.Source: UNCTAD.Figure 3Raw cashew nut yields, selected countries(Kilograms per hectare)2.1 TREESCashews

5、are found in different climatic regions between the 27th parallel north and 28th parallel south, but the bulk of commercial plantation takes place between the 15th parallel north and 15th parallel south. Cashew trees thrive in moist tropical climates and do not tolerate frost. An average monthly tem

6、perature of 26-28 is optimal for cashew tree growth (Paull and Duarte, 2011). Ideal climatic conditions also include 1,000-2,000 mm of rainfall during a rainy season of 5-7 months (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 1988), as well as an extended dry season during flowerin

7、g and fruit set. While cashew trees tolerate a broad range of soil types, they grow best on well-drained and deep sandy soils.In addition to the natural soil and climatic conditions, cashew growth and yields are also linked to plantation management. For instance, water and soil conservation (Indian

8、Council of Agricultural Research-National Research Centre for Cashew, 2008), appropriate fertilizer use and supplementary irrigation have been shown to have the potential to improve yields (Prabhakaran Nair, 2010). Cashewo20o00004006002008 UO 一20一 S nmqEpzow2?_。1 980SBU-=zs8 2015 2016 2017 2018Sourc

9、e: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the Competitive Cashew Initiative (ComCashew), the Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa Development (DCCD) of India and Viet Nam statistical yearbooks.Figure 4India: Raw cashew nut yields, selected states(K

10、ilograms per hectare)Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from DCCD.yields are also linked to average tree age, which makes replantation and rejuvenation key aspects of plantation management. Furthermore, pest and disease management also play important roles. Finally, cashew yields can differ

11、between varieties.Due to the factors highlighted above, cashew yields vary greatly between and within countries and fluctuate from season to season. Figure 3 shows the average yields of nine cashew producers in different regions in the period 2015-2018.It should be noted that these average yield fig

12、ures can mask large disparities between different areas within these countries. This is illustrated in figure 4, which shows yields across major cashew-growing states in India in the 2018/19 season, ranging from 476 kg/hectare in Tamil Nadu to 1,169 kg/hectare in Maharashtra.The large disparities an

13、d fluctuations in cashew yields are partially due to differences in soil and climatic conditions that cannot be controlled by farmers. However, strengthening farm management practices and improving the genotypical composition of cashew orchards can contribute to higher and more stable cashew yields

14、(Dadzie et aL, 2014; Mangalassery et al., 2019; Nayak et al., 2018). In this context, the low average yields in many cashew-growing countries, including in many countries in Africa, point to a significant potential to boost productivity and increase revenues for cashew farmers. This potential appear

15、s greatest among smallholding farmers that grow the bulk of cashew nuts but have limited access to the finance, quality seed material and technical know-how required to enhance productivity.2.2 KERNELSCashew kernels represent the main product of the cashew industry. They are consumed in various form

16、s, including as a salty or sweet snack or an ingredient in desserts and savoury dishes, or are further processed as cashew butter or as an ingredient in a variety of spreads, sauces, bars and drinks. In addition, cashew oil can be extracted from cashew kernels.221 ShellingA number of processing step

17、s must be undertaken to extract the kernel from raw cashew nuts (RCN; figure 5). In the first step, RCN are exposed to thermal treatment in order to make the outer shells brittle. The three main methods are steaming, roasting and immersing RCN in a hot oil bath. In the second step, RCN are shelled,

18、that is, the kernels are separated from the outer shells. This process can be done manually, mechanically or in a fully automated manner. The next step involves drying the kernel, followed by peeling off the testa. The testa and cashew shell are by-products of the cashew-processing industry and can

19、be further processed to generate numerous products. Cashew kernels are often sold in bulk and typically undergo secondary processing, including roasting, frying and the addition of salt, sugar or flavouring, and may also be mixed with other nuts before being packaged for retail sale.Figure 5Processi

20、ng of cashew productsRaw cashew nutCleaningThermal treatment I ShellingKernelCashew nut shell liquidSource: UNCTAD.222 Grading raw cashew nutsThe quality and therefore the price of RCN depends on several factors that are typically determined through a sampling process. A key quality indicator for RC

21、N is their kernel outturn ratio, which is the weight in pounds of usable kernels per 80 kg of RCN. A higher kernel outturn ratio yields a higher price since it means that more kernels can be extracted from RCN. Another indicator for assessing the value of RCN is the nut count, which measures RCN/kg.

22、 A smaller nut count corresponds to larger kernels, which generally yield a higher price. Furthermore, the defective rate is an important indicator of RCN quality; it measures the share of nuts that are not usable for various reasons, such as missing, stunted or moth-eaten kernels. Sampling also inc

23、ludes the measurement of the moisture content of RCN using a moisture meter; the moisture content should not exceed 9 per cent to limit degradation during storage. Other indicators that determine the value of RCN are the share of foreign matter and the float rate, that is, the share of RCN that floa

24、t in water, with a lower float rate corresponding to a higher quality.2.2.3 Grading cashew kernelsThere is a wide spectrum of cashew kernel qualities. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2013) standards for the commercial quality of cashew kernels provide a system to categorize unproc

25、essed kernels. The standards include a number of general quality requirements for commercial kernels, such as a maximum moisture content of 5 per cent. They also define characteristics to enable the categorization of cashew kernels into the three main quality classes of extra, class land class II (t

26、able 1). Whole nuts are further classified into seven categories ranging from 150 to 500 according to the maximum number of kernels per pound. Broken nuts are classified according to the sizes of the pieces, ranging from large (not passing through a sieve with an aperture of 4.75 mm) to baby bits or

27、 granules (not passing through a sieve with an aperture of 1.70 mm).Table 1Cashew kernel classificationClassCommercial designationDescriptionExtraWhiteWhite, pale ivory, pale ash-grey or light yellowClass IScorched or lightly blemishedLight brown, light ivory, light ash-grey, deep ivory or yellowCla

28、ss IIScorched seconds or dessertLight brown, amber, light blue, de 印 brown, de 印 blue, discoloured, black spotted, immature, shrivelled, blemished or stained kernels are permittedSource: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2013.In addition to the United Nations Economic Commission for Eur

29、ope standards, there are other quality classification systems for cashew kernels. These include the industry standards of the Association of Food Industries, which apply to the United States market, as well as standards developed by kernelexporting countries, including Brazil and India. These system

30、s generally also grade the quality of cashew kernels based on colour and size and whether the kernels are whole or broken.2.3 BY-PRODUCTSNut shell liquidCNSL is a viscous liquid that represents 20-25 per cent in weight of RCN (ComCashew, 2019a) and is mainly composed of anacardic acid, cardol and ca

31、rdanol (Kumar et aL, 2009). CNSL-based polymers have numerous desirable properties such as low fade characteristics, water repellence, wear and electrical resistance, solubility in common organic solvents, compatibility with many other polymers and antimicrobial activity, which make them a suitable

32、raw material for a range of industrial, chemical and pharmaceutical applications (Telascrea et al., 2014).One of the main uses of CNSL is in the manufacture of brake linings and clutch facings for the automobile industry (Lubi and Tchachil, 2000). CNSL is also used in the paint and coatings industri

33、es, in which it is a potential substitute for petroleum-based raw materials (Balgude and Sabnis, 2014). Furthermore, the potential use of CNSL as a biofuel or additive to biofuel has been demonstrated (Sanjeeva et aL, 2014). In addition, CNSL has a range of applications in the production of rubber,

34、adhesives and plastic materials. Finally, research has shown the potential of CNSL as a component of non-toxigenic insecticide (Vani et al., 2018).There are various methods of extracting CNSL from the cashew shell. The two most widely used technologies are mechanical extraction with screw expellers

35、and extraction through a hot oil bath before shelling. Other methods include solvent extraction (Tyman et aL, 1989) and extraction through pyrolysis (Das et al., 2004). The chemical composition of CNSL depends on the extraction method (Srinivas and Anilkumar, 2017), which can yield CNSL with a high

36、share of either anarcadic oil (natural CNSL) or cardanol (technical CNSL).The biggest producers of CNSL are Brazil, India and Viet Nam. There is also some degree of commercialization of CNSL in many countries that process cashew nuts, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote dlvoire, Ghana, Indonesia and

37、 Mozambique.2.3.1 Shell cakeCashew shell cake is the de-oiled cashew shell and thus a by-product of CNSL production. It can be used as a raw material for several products. In particular,shell cake can be carbonized and mixed with a binder to produce briquettes that can be used to fire industrial boi

38、lers (Sawadogo et aL, 2018). Shell cake can also be processed into vermiculite, a product used in gardening and hydroponics.2.3.2 AppleThe cashew apple is often referred to as the false fruit or pseudofruit of the cashew tree. Botanically, the cashew apple is a swollen stalk, which carries the true

39、fruit of the cashew tree: the cashew nut. Since the ripe cashew apple starts to ferment and degrade quickly after falling from the tree, it is often discarded during the cashew nut harvest. However, the cashew apple is rich in vitamin C and antioxidants and can be used to produce a range of food pro

40、ducts, including pectin and juices, alcoholic beverages, vinegars, syrups and jams. In addition to these products, the fibrous residues of the cashew apple juice-making process can be further processed to produce animal feed (Gomes et al., 2018) and research has shown the potential of juice residue

41、as a source of carotenoids for food supplements or natural food colourants (Abreu et al., 2013).A small share of cashew apples is consumed directly on orchards or processed into artisanal food products for local consumption in cashew-growing regions, yet commercial utilization of the cashew apple re

42、mains low in most cashew-growing countries. Brazil has the highest cashew apple utilization rate, estimated at 15 per cent (Luciano et al., 2011). In Brazil, the majority of harvested cashew apples are processed into cashew apple juice, which is widely consumed domestically and also exported. Cashew

43、 apples are also sold as fresh fruit or processed into candy and cajuina, a clarified juice. In India, a small share of cashew apples is used to produce juices, candies, jams, pickles and chutneys. An alcoholic beverage known as feni is also made from cashew apples in Goa. In 2014, the Pepsi Company

44、 announced plans to add cashew apple juice to fruit juice blends for the market in India (Strom, 2014), which could increase the share of utilized cashew apples. Cashew apple juice production also takes place in Senegal and Viet Nam, as well as in Ghana, where a brandy is also produced from cashew a

45、pples. Finally, several initiatives that aim to add value to cashew apples have recently emerged in other cashew-growing countries, including Benin and Nigeria.2.3.3 TestaThe cashew testa or husk is the thin skin covering the kernel. It contains a high concentration of tannins and can be used to pro

46、duce tanning agents for the leather industry. There has also been research on the potential of the use of testa as animal feed (Fang et aL, 2018).2.3.4 GumCashew gum, also known as anacardium gum, is an exudate from the bark of the cashew tree. It can be harvested from natural exudate or after tappi

47、ng, that is, incision of the trunk or branch. Cashew gum is a complex polysaccharide that has a range of industrial applications, including in pharmaceuticals and the food industry (Kumar et al., 2012). For instance, it can be used as a pharmaceutical excipient in drug delivery systems (Ribeiro et a

48、L, 2016). Research has also shown the potential of cashew gum as an encapsulating agent, clarifying agent and emulsifying agent in the food and beverages industry (Porto and Cristianini, 2014).This section has highlighted that there are several by-products in the cashew kernel value chain that have

49、the potential to contribute to diversification of the cashew-related economy and to value addition in communities involved in cashew production and/ or processing. Overall, value addition to and utilization of cashew by-products remains low, except for in Brazil and India, which have actively promoted the development of cashew by-product industries. This is part