02Chapter-2-sound-语言学概论-教学课件.ppt

《02Chapter-2-sound-语言学概论-教学课件.ppt》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《02Chapter-2-sound-语言学概论-教学课件.ppt（84页珍藏版）》请在淘文阁 - 分享文档赚钱的网站上搜索。

1、Chapter Two Speech Soundsn nAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds,but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.n nWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.n nPhonetics studies

2、how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.n nArticulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.n nAcoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.n nPerceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.1.Ho

3、w speech sounds are made1.1 Speech organsPosition of the vocal folds:voicing(initial&the widest aperture)Position of the vocal folds:glottal stopn nOne of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.n nThe ide

4、a of establishing a The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabetphonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen(1860-1943)in 1886,and(1860-1943)in 1886,and n nthe first version of

5、the the first version of the International Phonetic International Phonetic AlphabetAlphabet(the (the IPA chartIPA chart)was published in)was published in August 1888.August 1888.n nThe InternationalPhonetic Alphabet(Revised to 2005)n nThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruc

6、tion of airstream.n nAs there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.2.1 Consonants n nIn the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved.n nFor example,the initial sound in For example

7、,the initial sound in badbad involves involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade both lips and its final segment involves the blade(or the tip)of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.(or the tip)of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.n nThe categories of consonant,therefore,are establish

8、ed on the basis of several factors.n nThe manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:n nthe articulators may close off the oral tract for the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;an instant or a relatively long peri

9、od;n nthey may narrow the space considerably;or they may narrow the space considerably;or n nthey may simply modify the shape of the tract they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.by approaching each other.n nThe place of articulation refers to the point where a conson

10、ant is made.n nPractically consonants may be produced at any Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.place between the lips and the vocal folds.n nEleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:n nBilabialBilabialn nLabiodentalLabiod

11、entaln nDentalDentaln nAlveolarAlveolarn nPostalveolar(Palatal-Postalveolar(Palatal-Alveolar)Alveolar)n nRetroflexRetroflexn nPalatalPalataln nVelarVelarn nUvularUvularn nPharyngealPharyngealn nGlottalGlottal2.2 Vowels Theoretically,any segment must be either a vowel or a consonant.The problematic a

12、rea is that in yet and wet the initial segments are obviously vowels.To get out of this problem,the usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.For this purpose,the term semi-vowel is often used.n nLanguages also frequently mak

13、e use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant(unchanged)throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality.n nThe former are known as The former are known as purepure or or monophthong monophthong vowelsvowels(单元音单元音单元音单元音)and the latter,and

14、the latter,vowel glidesvowel glides（滑元音）（滑元音）（滑元音）（滑元音）.n nIf a single movement of the tongue is involved,the glides are called diphthongs（双（双（双（双元音）元音）元音）元音）.n nA double movement produces a triphthong（三合元音）（三合元音）（三合元音）（三合元音）,which is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third,all produce

15、d rapidly and without interruption.n nThey are really diphthongs followed by the schwa（中性元音，即（中性元音，即（中性元音，即（中性元音，即 ）,found in English words like wire wa and tower ta.2.3 The sounds of English n nReceived Pronunciation(RP)the most common model accent in the teaching of Englishthe most common model ac

16、cent in the teaching of English as a foreign language,also called BBC English/Oxford as a foreign language,also called BBC English/Oxford English.English.n nGeneral American(GA)the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers in the

17、USA.in the USA.n nEnglish consonantsn nThe consonants of English can be described in the following manner:n npvoiceless bilabial stoppvoiceless bilabial stopn nbvoiced bilabial stopbvoiced bilabial stopn nsvoiceless alveolar fricativesvoiceless alveolar fricativen nzvoiced alveolar fricativezvoiced

18、alveolar fricativeEnglish vowelsn nThe description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:n nthe height of tongue raising(the height of tongue raising(highhigh,midmid,lowlow););n nthe position of the highest part of the tongue the position of the highest part of the tongue(frontf

19、ront,centralcentral,backback););n nthe length or the length or tensenesstenseness of the vowel(of the vowel(tense(tense(紧紧紧紧)vs.vs.lax lax（松）（松）（松）（松）or or longlong vs.vs.shortshort),),Note that the Note that the tensetense or or laxlax feature corresponds to feature corresponds to the feature of th

20、e feature of longlong or or shortshort respectively.respectively.n nlip-roundinglip-rounding(roundedrounded vs.vs.unroundedunrounded).).Note that in English all the front vowels and the Note that in English all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels,ie,without central vowels ar

21、e unrounded vowels,ie,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels,with rounding the lips,and all the back vowels,with the exception of the exception of B BB B:,are rounded.:,are rounded.n nWe can now describe the English vowels in this way:3.From phonetics to phonologyn nSpeech is a continuous

22、 process,so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps.Rather,sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.n nFor example,in the word For example,in the word lamblamb,/A/A/A/A/is followed is followed by by /m/m/m/m/,so the velum will beg

23、in to lower itself,so the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of during the articulation of/A/A/A/A/so that it is so that it is ready for the following nasal.Accordingly,ready for the following nasal.Accordingly,/A A A A/shows shows the influence of its neighbor the influence of

24、 its neighbor/m/m/m/m/.3.1 Coarticulation（协同发音）（协同发音）n ncoarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations,as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized.n nIf the sound becomes more like the following sound,If the sound

25、 becomes more like the following sound,as in the case of as in the case of lamblamb,it is known as,it is known as anticipatory anticipatory coarticulation coarticulation(先期协同发音先期协同发音先期协同发音先期协同发音).n nIf the sound shows the influence of the preceding If the sound shows the influence of the preceding s

26、ound,it is sound,it is perseverative coarticulationperseverative coarticulation（后滞协同发音）（后滞协同发音）（后滞协同发音）（后滞协同发音）,as is the case of as is the case of map map（Nasal quality of Nasal quality of/m/m/m/m/carries forward to the vowel carries forward to the vowel/A/A/A/A/.In other words,.In other words,the

27、process of lowering soft palate is still in process the process of lowering soft palate is still in process when the articulation of when the articulation of/A/A/A/A/has begun.has begun.）n nThe fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization.n

28、 nTo indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol add a diacritic to the top of the symbol,as,as .By the same token,we can use these diacritics for recording other variations of the same sound.Take/p/for example,i

29、t is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h,as ph,whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p.n nWhen we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription,it is called a broad transcription(宽宽宽宽式转写式转写式转写式转写)，n

30、ormally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.n nThe use of more specific symbols(i.e,with diacritics)to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription（窄式转写）（窄式转写）（窄式转写）（窄式转写）,needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.n nBoth a

31、re phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets .3.2 Phonemes（音位（音位）n nPhonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.n nPhoneticians are concerned with how sounds Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way th

32、ey are pronounced while differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.variations.n nCrystal:Phonologica

33、l analysis relies on the principle Crystal:Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase,whereas other sounds do not.word or phrase,whereas other sounds do not.A basic way to de

34、termine the phonemes of a language A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.If it does,the two sounds in a change of meaning.If it does,the two sounds the

35、n represent different phonemes.For instance,in then represent different phonemes.For instance,in the word the word pit pit pitpitpitpit,if we replace if we replace/p p p p/byby /b b b b/,a a different word results:different word results:bitbit;In contrast,in the word ;In contrast,in the word speaksp

36、eak spi:kspi:kspi:kspi:k,if we replace unaspirated,if we replace unaspirated pppp by by aspiratedaspirated pppph h ,it is still it is still speak,speak,without a newly without a newly emergent word,only with a different pronunciation emergent word,only with a different pronunciation caused by dialec

37、t or personal habit.So we can caused by dialect or personal habit.So we can conclude that conclude that/p p p p/andand /bbbb /represent different represent different phonemes in English,whilephonemes in English,while pppp andand pppph h notnot.n nThis technique is called Minimal Pairs test.n nWhen t

38、wo different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.So in English pit and bit are a minimal pair,and so are tie and die,tin and din,and pill and till.n nMinimal Pairs test

39、is an easy way to determine phonemes:1.To find the minimal pairs.2.To find out if substituting one sound for another in a minimal pair results in a change of meaning.If it does,the two sounds then represent different phonemes.n nThe word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast:the

40、 existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts(Roca&Johnson,1999:53).n nBy selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.(Spenser,1996:3)n nPhoneme:Phoneme:a phonological unit;a unit of explicit

41、sound a phonological unit;a unit of explicit sound contrast.If two sounds in a language make a contrast contrast.If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words,they are said to be between two different words,they are said to be different phonemes.different phonemes.n n Langu

42、ages differ in the selection of contrastive Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.sounds.n nIn English,the distinction between aspirated pIn English,the distinction between aspirated ph h and and unaspirated p is not unaspirated p is not phonemicphonemic.They both belong to the.The

43、y both belong to the same phoneme same phoneme/p/,/p/,/p/,/p/,but are realized as different but are realized as different phonetic sounds conditioned by different positons.phonetic sounds conditioned by different positons.n nIn Chinese,however,the distinction between/p/and/pIn Chinese,however,the di

44、stinction between/p/and/ph h/is phonemic so that is phonemic so that 宾宾宾宾 and and 拼拼拼拼 are transcribed asare transcribed as /pin/pin/pin/pin/and and/pppph h inininin/respectively.The difference between the/respectively.The difference between the pinyin pinyin symbols symbols b b andand p p is is not

45、 the difference of voicing but the not the difference of voicing but the difference of aspiration there is no voiced difference of aspiration there is no voiced bbbb in Chinese in Chinese Putonghua.Putonghua.n nBy convention,phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines(/)while phonetic tra

46、nscriptions are placed between square brackets().n nIn phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions In phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions.represent the broad transcriptions.3.3 Allophones(音位变体音位变体)n np,ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme/p/.Su

47、ch variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.n nIn this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution（互补分布）（互补分布）because they never occur in the same context:p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places.We can represent this rule as:We can represent this

48、rule as:/p/p/p/s _ p/s _ pph h elsewhere elsewhere Note:The arrow Note:The arrow represents the process of represents the process of variation;the slashvariation;the slash/specifies the environment in specifies the environment in which the process takes place.The bar _(called which the process takes

49、 place.The bar _(called the Focus Bar)indicates the position of the target the Focus Bar)indicates the position of the target segment,i.e,the position in which/p/appears.segment,i.e,the position in which/p/appears.This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of This phenomenon of variation in t

50、he pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called phonemes in different positions is called allophonyallophony or or allophonic variationallophonic variation.Allophone:Allophone:variants of the same phoneme.If two or variants of the same phoneme.If two or more phonetically different soun