语言学教程之句法幻灯片.ppt

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1、语言学教程之句法语言学教程之句法1第1页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三1.The Study of Meaningn nSemantics:n nThe meaning of words:Lexical semanticsn nThe meaning of sentences:Propositional meaning,compositional meaningn nLinguistic semantics vs.Logical semantics/philosophical semantics2第2页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三2.Semantic Meaningn nSema

2、ntics is the study of meaning in Semantics is the study of meaning in language.language.n nMeaning has been studied for Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers,thousands of years by philosophers,logicians and then linguists.E.g.logicians and then linguists.E.g.n nLaozi(China)

3、Laozi(China)n nPlato&Aristotle(Greek)Plato&Aristotle(Greek)n nOgden&RichardsOgden&Richardsn nLeechLeech3第3页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nLogicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences(typically,statements,or propositions)within a single language.n nThe linguistic app

4、roach is broader in scope,aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way,with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.4第4页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三3.The meaning of meaningn nC.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).The Meaning of Meaning.n n16 major categories,

5、6 sub-categoriesn nJohn means to write.n nA green light means to go.5第5页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nHealth means everything.n nHis look was full of meaning.6第6页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nWhat is the meaning of life?7第7页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nWhat does capitalist mean to you?8第8页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nWhat does corne

6、a眼角膜眼角膜 mean?n nThe transparent,convex凸面的凸面的,anterior portion of the outer fibrous纤维的纤维的 coat of the eyeball that covers the iris虹膜虹膜 and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera巩膜巩膜.9第9页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nGeoffrey Leech(1974,1981).Geoffrey Leech(1974,1981).Semantics:The Study of Semantics:The

7、Study of MeaningMeaning.Seven types of meaning:.Seven types of meaning:n nConceptual meaningConceptual meaning:n nlogical,cognitive,denotative contentlogical,cognitive,denotative contentn nConnotative meaningConnotative meaning:n nWhat language refers toWhat language refers ton nSocial meaningSocial

8、 meaning:n nsocial circumstances of language usesocial circumstances of language usen nAffective meaningAffective meaning:n nthe feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writerthe feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writern nReflected meaningReflected meaning:n nassociation with another sense of the

9、same expressionassociation with another sense of the same expressionn nCollocative meaningCollocative meaning:n nAssociation with words which tend to occur Association with words which tend to occur n nin the environment of another wordin the environment of another wordn nThematic meaningThematic me

10、aning:n nWhich the message is organized in terms of order and emphasisWhich the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis Associative Meaning10第10页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(1)Conceptual meaning:the central partn nAlso called denotative or cognitive meaning.n nRefers to logical,cognitive or denota

11、tive content.n nConcerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes,or refers to.n nCf.referenceCf.reference11第11页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(2)Connotative meaningn nConnotation vs denotation:philosophern nHuman:biped,featherless,rationaln nLeech:some additional,emotive meaningLeech:some

12、additional,emotive meaningn nPolitician vs statesman12第12页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(2)Connotative meaningn nThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to,over and above its purely conceptual content.n nA multitude of additional,non-criterial properties,including not only physical

13、 characteristics but also psychological and social properties,as well as typical features.13第13页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nInvolving the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.n nUnstable:they vary considerably according to culture,historical period,and the exper

14、ience of the individual.n nAny characteristic of the referent,identified subjectively or objectively,may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.14第14页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三15第15页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Step mother16第16页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三17第17页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三18第18页，共86页，编辑于

15、2022年，星期三(3)Social meaningn nWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.n nDialect:the language of a geographical region or of a social class.n nTime:the language of the 18th c.,etc.n nProvince:language of law,of science,of advertising,etc.n nStatus:polite,colloquial,

16、slang,etc.n nModality:language of memoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.n nSingularity:the style of Dickens,etc.19第19页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n ndomicile:very formal,officialn nresidence:formaln nabode:poeticn nhome:generaln nsteed:poeticn nhorse:generaln nnag:slangn ngee-gee:baby language20第20页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三T

17、he five clocks by Martin JoosFrozen Formal Consultative Casual IntimateFormal Informal21第21页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三The five clocks by Martin Joosn nFrozenFrozen：Visitors would make their way at once to the Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the staircase.(upper floor by wa

18、y of the staircase.(贵客立即经楼梯上贵客立即经楼梯上楼。楼。)n nFormalFormal：Visitors should go up the stairs at once.(Visitors should go up the stairs at once.(诸位诸位诸位诸位马上从楼梯上楼。马上从楼梯上楼。马上从楼梯上楼。马上从楼梯上楼。)n nConsultativeConsultative：Would you mind going up stairs right Would you mind going up stairs right away,please?(awa

19、y,please?(请大家马上从楼梯上楼，好吗请大家马上从楼梯上楼，好吗请大家马上从楼梯上楼，好吗请大家马上从楼梯上楼，好吗?)n nCasual：Time you all went up stairs now.(大家现在大家现在大家现在大家现在马上上楼。马上上楼。马上上楼。马上上楼。)n nIntimateIntimate：Up you go,chaps!(Up you go,chaps!(伙计们，上楼伙计们，上楼伙计们，上楼伙计们，上楼!)!)22第22页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(4)Affective meaningn nReflecting the personal fee

20、lings of the speaker,including his attitude to the listener,or his attitude to something he is talking about.n nYoure a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate,and I hate you for it!n nIm terribly sorry to interrupt,but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little.orn nWill yo

21、u belt up.23第23页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Colorful meaningn nCommendatory n ntough-mindedn nresolute,firmn nshrewdn nchildliken nwisemann nman of usual talentn nportly,stout,solid,plumn nslender,slimn nDerogatory n nruthlessn nobstinaten nsly,craftyn nchildishn nwiseguyn nfreakn nfleshy,fat,tubbyn nlean,ski

22、nny,lanky,weedy,scraggy24第24页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(5)Reflected meaningn nArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning,when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.n nWhen you hear click the mouse twice,you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.n nMany taboo

23、 terms are result of this.25第25页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(6)Collocative meaningn nThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.n npretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.n nhandsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter

24、,etc.26第26页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三(7)Thematic meaningn nWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message,in terms of ordering,focus,and emphasis.n nMrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.n nThe first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.n nThey stopped at the end of t

25、he corridor.n nAt the end of the corridor,they stopped.27第27页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Four ways to explain the meaning of a wordn nPointing to the objectn nDescribe it verballyn nParaphrase it,n nTranslating(equivalent in other languages)28第28页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三4.The Referential Theory:The Theory of Refere

26、ncen nWords Meaning:Words name or refer to things Platonic n nExplaining the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to:(proper nouns,definite noun phrarases)n nthe USA,n nthe P.R.China n nThe most influential linguist Noam Chomsky teaches at MIT.29第29页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三The Referential

27、Theoryn nProblems:n nbird,cup,bowl,deskn nReal-time thing/entity vs.General Conceptn nConcrete vs.Abstractn nMaterial world vs.metal mindsn nWordsConceptsThings:Ogden&Richards:The Meaning of Meaningn nConcept:Abstract thing,no existence in the material world,sensed in the mind30第30页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期

28、三airplane31第31页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Direct relation vs Mediating notionthought/concept/imagesymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word)stands for (object)32第32页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三5.Sensen nMeaning is not some kind of entity separate from language.n nThat words have meaning means only that they are used in

29、 a certain way in a sentence.There is no meaning beyond the meaning of individual words and sentences.33第33页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nLudwig Wittgenstein:The meaning of a word is its use in the language.n nMeaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific

30、contexts.n nReference:how language refers to this external worldn nBetween a word(a linguistic unit)and a thing(non-linguistic unit)n nSense:the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their languagen nWith the intralinguistic relations34第34页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三The family tree(se

31、nse,not reference)n n舅父舅父=mothers brothern n叔叔叔叔=fathers younger brothern n伯父伯父=fathers elder brothern n姨母姨母=mothers sistern n姑母姑母=fathers sister35第35页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三6.Sense Relationsn nSynonymyn n(sameness)n nAntonymyn n(oppositeness)n nHyponymyn n(inclusiveness)GradableComplementaryConverse36第3

32、6页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三6.1 Synonymyn nbuy/purchase buy/purchase n n(style)(style)n nthrifty/economical/stingy thrifty/economical/stingy n n(connotation)(connotation)n nautumn/fall autumn/fall n n(dialect)(dialect)n nflat/apartment flat/apartment n n(dialect)(dialect)n ntube/underground tube/underground

33、 n n(dialect)(dialect)37第37页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三6.2 antonymy n nThree Main Sub-types:n nGradable antonymyn nComplementary antonymyn nConverse antonymy38第38页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Gradablen ngood-badn nlong-shortn nbig-smalln nCan be modified by adverbs of degree like very.n nCan have comparative forms.n nC

34、an be asked with how.39第39页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三 Complementary antonymyn nalive:deadn nmale:femalen npresent:absentn ninnocent:guiltyn nodd:evenn npass:failn nboy:girln nhit:miss40第40页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Converse antonymyn nbuy:selln nlend:borrown ngive:receiven nparent:childn nhusband:wifen nteacher:stu

35、dentn nabove:belown nbefore:aftern nhost:guestn nemployer:employee41第41页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三6.2 Hyponymyn nInclusivenessInclusivenessn nA is included in/a kind of B.n nCf.:Cf.:chairchair and and furniturefurniture,roserose and flowern nSuperordinate/hypernym:Superordinate/hypernym:the more general ter

36、m the more general termn nFurniture,flowerFurniture,flowern nHyponym:Hyponym:the more specific term the more specific termn nDesk,roseDesk,rosen nCo-hyponyms:Co-hyponyms:members of the same class members of the same classn nRose,tulip,violet,carnationRose,tulip,violet,carnationn nAuto-Hyponym:Auto-H

37、yponym:a superordinate is the superordinate to itself.a superordinate is the superordinate to itself.42第42页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .43第43页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三Special relationsn nA superordinate may be missing.A superordinate may be missing.n nA

38、djective of the colour terms:red,green,blueAdjective of the colour terms:red,green,bluen nHyponyms may also be missing:Hyponyms may also be missing:n nUncle:Uncle:舅舅，叔叔，姑父，伯伯舅舅，叔叔，姑父，伯伯舅舅，叔叔，姑父，伯伯舅舅，叔叔，姑父，伯伯n nRice:Rice:稻，谷，米，饭稻，谷，米，饭44第44页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三7.Componential Analysisn nDistinctive feat

39、ures in phonologyDistinctive features in phonologyn nSemantic features/semantic componentsn nSmaller than the wordsn nBoy (HUMAN,YONG,MALE)Boy (HUMAN,YONG,MALE)n nGirl (HUMAN,YONG,FEMALE)Girl (HUMAN,YONG,FEMALE)n nBinary-unitBinary-unitn nYong=ADULTYong=ADULTn nFEMAL=MALE45第45页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nH

40、UMANn nman(ADULT,MALE)n nwoman(ADULT,FEMALE)n nboy(NON-ADULT,MALE)n ngirl(NON-ADULT,FEMALE)46第46页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三7.1 Animal words47第47页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三7.2 Domestic animals48第48页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三7.3 English motion verbs49第49页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三7.4 More complex onesn nHow about for some words whic

41、h involve a relation between two entities?n nLogic expressionsn nfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)n nThere are two persons(x,y)n nx is a parent of y,and x is male.n ny?50第50页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n ntake:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)n nThere are two entities(x,y)n nx causes x to have y.n nx?n ny?n ngive:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y

42、)n nx causes x not to have y.51第51页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nSynonymousn nAntonymsn nhyponymshyponyms52第52页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三8.Meaning&Syntactic Structuren nThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it,but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply th

43、e sum total of the words.SNPVNP53第53页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nThe cat is chasing the mouse.n nThe mouse is chasing the cat.n nI have read that book.n nThat book I have read.n nThe daughter of Queen Elizabeths son is the son of Queen Elizabeths daughter.54第54页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三8.1 Compositionalityn nAn i

44、ntegrated theoryn nKatz&Fodor(1963):The structure of a semantic theory.A 40-page long paper published in Language.n n“The method itself is years out of date but the debate about the principle of compositionality is by no means over.”(Cruse,2004:77)55第55页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nThe idea behind the princ

45、iple was to solve the problem of generating grammatical but meaningless(?)sentences like Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.56第56页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nGlobal warming is a fact,and while the word“global”makes the problem seem so big,you can help,even if it ison a small scale.You can start in your

46、own home,with“green living.”Vanity Fairs Virtual Green website gives great green ideas,room by room.For the kitchen,for example,the people atVirtual Green suggest a smart,cute,and eco-friendly stool,the“chiquita stool,”made of rattan and recycled steel.57第57页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nGreen productn nGree

47、n buildingn nGreen lifen nGreen guiden nGreen earthn nGreen environmentn nGreen environmental materialsn nGreen energyn nGreen businessn nGreen consumptionn nGreen internet servicen nGreen agriculturen nGreen revolutionn nGreen Olympicsn nGreen economics58第58页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nAccording to the pr

48、inciple of compositionality,each word in the lexicon is equipped with certain components and combinations of words into sentences must go through certain selection restrictions in order to produce acceptable sentences.n nThus we can say colorful ball because59第59页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n ncolorful Adjn n

49、(Color)abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors n n(Evaluative)having distinctive character,vividness,or picturesqueness 60第60页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nball NCn n(Social Activity)(Large)(Assembly)for the purpose of social dancingn n(Physical Object)having globular shapen n(Physical Object)solid

50、 missile for projection by engine of war61第61页，共86页，编辑于2022年，星期三n nThen it is possible to work out four readings of the combinations of color and ball,and further combinations with other words(projections)will determine which of the four is the actual meaning in the sentence John hit the colorful ba