语言学Meaning学习教程.pptx

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1、11.The Study of MeaningSemantics:the study of meaning英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos，意思是significant(有意义)。是研究语言意义的科学。第1页/共98页21.The Study of MeaningLinguistic semantics:the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particularThe meaning of words:Lexical semanticsThe meaning of senten

2、ces:Propositional meaning,compositional meaningThe meaning of utterances:Pragmatics第2页/共98页3Meaning has always been a central topic in human scholarship.Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers,logicians and linguists,e.g.Plato&Aristotle.第3页/共98页42.The meaning of MEANINGThe wo

3、rd“meaning”has different meanings.C.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).The Meaning of Meaning.John means to write.A green light means to go.第4页/共98页5Health means everything.His look was full of meaning.第5页/共98页6What is the meaning of life?第6页/共98页7What does capitalist mean to you?第7页/共98页8第8页/共98页9Geoffrey

4、Leech(1974,1981).Semantics:The Study of MeaningSeven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaningReflected meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaningAssociativeMeaning第9页/共98页10(1)Conceptual meaningAlso called denotative（外延的）or cognitive meaning.Refers to log

5、ical,cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes,or refers to.第10页/共98页11概念意义概念意义是意义的核心，它直接地、明确地表示所指对象，因此又叫做“所指意义”referential meaning如：father,dad,daddy,papa,the old man,male parent，具有相同的概念意义，不同的感情意义和文体意义。第11页/共98页12联想意义词的关联意义又叫联想意义，是词的附带意义，

6、包括词的感情色彩、文体意义等。这种意义不确定，变化大。Woman 一词让我们联想到“妈妈”，“养儿育女”，“温柔”，“持家”等。第12页/共98页13词的联想意义可分为：Connotative meaning 内涵意义Social meaning 社会意义Affective meaning 情感意义Reflected meaning 反射意义Collocative meaning 搭配意义第13页/共98页14(2)Connotative meaning内涵意义What is communicated by virtue of(依靠;由于;借助)what language refers to.

7、指附加在概念意义上的，通过语言所指事物传递的意义；表示概念意义的属性。第14页/共98页15(2)Connotative meaning内涵意义Woman 的概念意义是：(+hunman)(-male)(+adult)但这三个特征又有它的属性，及我们提到woman会联想到女人的社会、心理、生理等特点，如：frail,prone to tears,emotional(内涵意义)社会、阶级、阶层和个人都可以给一个词附加一个内涵意义。第15页/共98页16Involving the real world experience,one associates with an expression whe

8、n one uses or hears it.Unstable:they vary considerably according to culture,historical period,and the experience of the individual.第16页/共98页17Step mother第17页/共98页18第18页/共98页19第19页/共98页20(3)Social meaningWhat is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义。第20页/共98页21(3

9、)Social meaningDialect:the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time:the language of the 18th c.,etc.Province:language of law,of science,of advertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:language of memoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:the style of Dickens,etc.第21页

10、/共98页22domicile 住宅:very formal,officialresidence:formalabode bud:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:baby language第22页/共98页23语体级别 据马丁朱斯（Martin Joos）的“五只钟”（Five Clocks）之说，语体可分为亲昵（intimate）、随便（casual）、商洽（consultative）、正式（formal）和冷淡（frozen）第23页/共98页24The five clocks by Martin Jo

11、osFrozen Formal Consultative Casual IntimateFormal Informal第24页/共98页25(4)Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker,including his attitude to the listener,or his attitude to something he is talking about.所传达的关于说话人/作者感情、态度方面的意义。第25页/共98页26Colorful meaningCommendatory tough-minde

12、dresolute,firmshrewd精明的精明的 childlikewise manman of unusual talentportly,stout,solid,plumslender,slimDerogatory ruthlessobstinatesly,craftychildishwise guyfreak奇异的，反常的奇异的，反常的fleshy,fat,tubbylean,skinny,lanky,weedy,scraggy第26页/共98页27(5)Reflected meaning What is communicated through association with an

13、other sense of the same expression.通过同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义Gay(快乐的，同性恋)Many taboo terms are result of this.第27页/共98页28(6)Collocative meaning搭配意义 What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.pretty:girl,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.han

14、dsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.第28页/共98页29(7)Thematic meaning主位意义、主题意义What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message,in terms of ordering,focus,and emphasis.I went to the Great Wall last year.Last year I went to the Great Wall.第29页/共98页3

15、03.The referential theory指称论The referential theory:The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is known as the referential theory.第30页/共98页31Problem with this theory:the meaning of desk:When we explain the meaning of desk by pointing to the thing

16、 it refers to,we do not mean a desk must be of the particular size,shape,color and material as the desk we are pointing to at the moment of speaking.We are using this particular desk as an example,an instance,of something more general.第31页/共98页32 There is something behind the concrete thing we can s

17、ee with our eyes.And that something is abstract,which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds.This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.第32页/共98页334.The semantic triangle 语义三角WordsConceptsThings:Ogden&Richardsconcept/sensesymbolizes refers tosymbol referent

18、(word)stands for (thing)第33页/共98页34The relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.It is mediated by concept.第34页/共98页35Richards invented the semantic triangle to demonstrate the relationship between symbols(符号)and their referent(指称).One part of the triangle is the symbol,or the w

19、ord.An example would be a blanket.Another peak on the triangle is the thought(concept,sense).This is the words that one would use to describe the referent such as warm,cozy,cotton.The referent(object,thing),the last part,is the thing that one would picture in his mind.第35页/共98页36airplane第36页/共98页37B

20、ut:Not every word has a reference.Grammatical words:but,ifGod,ghost,dragon第37页/共98页385.Sense and reference 涵义与指称Sense refers to the main features,the defining properties an entity has.The sense of desk:a piece of furniture with a flap top and four legs,at which one reads and writesSense is equivalen

21、t to concept.The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk.Reference:the concrete entities a particular desk in the world第38页/共98页39Every word has a sense,i.e.some conceptual content.But not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but,if,and do not refer to anything.Words like u

22、nicorn,Santa Claus,God,ghost,fairy,demon and dragon refer to imaginary things,which do not exist in reality.Abstract words like sincerity,love dont have a concrete referent in the world.第39页/共98页40What is more,it is not convenient to explain the meaning of a word in terms of the thing it refers to.W

23、e should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.不同的人对于同一个词的脑中意象是不一样的，例如lecture这个词，学生脑中的意象可能是一个人站在黑板前讲话，教师脑中的意象可能是一排排的学生面对他坐着听讲以及粉笔拿在手里的感觉。学生脑中的意象不同于教师脑中的意象。第40页/共98页416.Sense RelationsSynonymy 同义关系Antonymy 反义关系Hyponymy 上下义关系Gradable 等级反义Complementary 互补反义Converse 反向反义第41页/共98页426.1 Sy

24、nonymybuy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground第42页/共98页43AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppositeness relation.There are three subtypes:gradable,complementary and converse antonymy.第43页/共98页446.2 Gradable antonymy good-badlong-shortbig-smallCan be modified by a

25、dverbs of degree like very.Can have comparative forms.Can be asked with how.第44页/共98页451)They are gradable.Good-so so-average-bad2)Norms are different.A big car is much smaller than a small plane.3)One number of a pair,usually the term for the higher degree,serves as the cover term.How old are you?第

26、45页/共98页46Cover term:unmarked word,usual word.覆盖词叫“无标记词”，及常见的。被覆盖的词叫“标记词”，及不常见的。第46页/共98页476.3 Complementary antonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyn nodd:evenn npass:failn nboy:girln nhit:miss第47页/共98页48互补反义词 等级反义词 abab第48页/共98页496.4 Converse antonymybuy:selllend:borrowgive:recei

27、veparent:childhusband:wifen nteacher:studentn nabove:belown nbefore:aftern nhost:guestn nemployer:employee第49页/共98页50（1）互补对立（绝对反义词）：无中间状态的两个意义相反的词组成的反义聚合。男女，生死，有无，单双（2）两级对立（相对反义词）：有中间状态的两个意义相反的词组成的反义聚合。左右，大小，冷热，（3）关系对立：表示行为、活动或社会关系上有了一方就暗示有另一方或多方的存在，二者互为依存。买卖，嫁娶，父子,老师学生，原告被告，进攻防御退却，敌军友军我军第50页/共98页51

28、6.5 HyponymyInclusiveness 意义的内包关系A is included in/a kind of B.chair and furniture,rose and flower第51页/共98页526.5 Hyponymy Hyponymy is a matter of class membership.1）The upper term is called Superordinate.上义词、上坐标词 2）The lower term is called hypernym.下义词 3）Co-hyponyms:members of the same class 同下义词第52页

29、/共98页53 Animal(动物)bird fish insect animal(哺乳动物)human animal(兽类)tiger lion elephant .第53页/共98页54 animal 叫做自我下义词（auto-hyponym）第54页/共98页55DO remember:nSometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.(animal)n2)A superordinate may be missing.n (red-green-yellow-blue-white)3)Hyponyms may also

30、be missing.(uncle)第55页/共98页567.Componential Analysis 成分分析法Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.That is,the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole.It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features.There are semantic units smal

31、ler than the meaning of a word.第56页/共98页577.Componential Analysis 成分分析法HUMANman(ADULT,MALE)woman(ADULT,FEMALE)boy(NON-ADULT,MALE)girl(NON-ADULT,FEMALE)第57页/共98页587.1 Animal words第58页/共98页597.2 English motion verbs第59页/共98页60To be economical,we can combine together some semantic components:Boy:+human

32、-adult+maleGirl:+human-adult-male第60页/共98页617.3 More complex ones page115father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)x is a parent of y,and x is male.Son:child(x,y)&male(x)Daughter:child(x,y)&-male(x)第61页/共98页627.3 More complex ones page115take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)x causes x to have y.give:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)x causes x

33、not to have y.第62页/共98页638.Meaning&Syntactic StructureThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it,but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.SNPVNP第63页/共98页64The cat is chasing the mouse.The mouse is chasing the ca

34、t.I have read that book.That book I have read.The son of Pharaohs daughter is the daughter of Pharaohs son.第64页/共98页65这表明：句子意义是词语意义和句子结构共同作用的结果。第65页/共98页668.Sentence MeaningAn integrated theory1)Compositionality组合性原则:A principle for sentence analysis,in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the

35、 meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combine.第66页/共98页678.1 CompositionalityAn integrated theoryKatz&Fodor(1963):The structure of a semantic theory.A 40-page long paper published in Language.第67页/共98页68According to Katz&Fodor Semantics should be an integral part of grammar.A seman

36、tic theory consists of two parts:a dictionary and a set of projection rules.词典和投射规则。词典提供词的语法分类和语义信息。投射规则负责把词语意义组合在一起。第68页/共98页69单词bachelor有如下辨义成分：a.who has never married b.young knight serving under the standard of another knightc.who has the first or lowest academic degreed.young fur seal when with

37、out a mate during the breeding time小雄兽第69页/共98页70Selectional restrictions(选择限制规则)refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Some sentences may be grammatically well-formed,yet they may not be semantically meaningful,because they contain words which are not supposed to go.第70页

38、/共98页71The idea behind the principle was to solve the problem of generating grammatical but meaningless sentences like Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.第71页/共98页72According to the principle of compositionality,each word in the lexicon is equipped with certain components and combinations of word

39、s into sentences must go through certain selection restrictions in order to produce acceptable sentences.Thus we can say colorful ball because第72页/共98页73colorful Adj(Color)abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors(Evaluative)having distinctive character,vividness,or picturesqueness 第73页/共98页

40、74ball NC(Social Activity)(Large)(Assembly)for the purpose of social dancing(Physical Object)having globular shape(Physical Object)solid missile for projection by engine of war第74页/共98页75Then it is possible to work out four readings of the combinations of color and ball,and further combinations with

41、 other words(projections)will determine which of the four is the actual meaning in the sentence John hit the colorful balls and We had a colorful ball last night.第75页/共98页768.2 Noncompositional meaningIdioms:cannot be built up as the sum of its parts.Idioms are phrases derived by metaphor and other

42、types of semantic extension.get up on the wrong side of the bed 心情不佳；起床下错边in the doghouse失宠，受冷遇；丢脸green with envy 非常嫉妒的kick the bucket死了；一命呜呼face the music勇敢地面对困难；接受应得的惩罚第76页/共98页779.Logic Semantics 逻辑语义学Prepositional logic（命题逻辑）/prepositional calculus（命题演算）/sentential calculus（句子演算）:the study of th

43、e truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.第77页/共98页78研究命题的真值条件：复合命题的真值是如何由其成分命题的真值及相互关系决定的。第78页/共98页79Sense relations between sentences1 X is synonymous with YEg X:He

44、was a bachelor all his life.Y:He never married all his life.X:The boy killed the dog.Y:the dog was killed by the boy.Truth conditions:If X is true Y is true;if X is false Y is false第79页/共98页802 X is inconsistent with Y（语义上不一致）Eg X John is married.Y John is a bachelor.X He has been to France before.Y

45、 This is his first visit to France.Truth condition：If X is true，Y is false；if X is false Y is true.第80页/共98页813 X entails(蕴涵)Y （Y is an entailment of X）Eg 1 X：He has been to France.Y：He has been to Europe.X He is a widower.Y He is a man.Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y，the meanin

46、g of X is included in Y.第81页/共98页82Conclusion：If X is true，Y is necessarily true.Eg，if he has been to F，he must have been to E.If X is false，Y may be T or F.Eg，if he has not been to France，he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe.第82页/共98页83If Y is T，X may be T or F eg if he has

47、 been to Europe，he may or may not have been to France.If Y is F，X is F.eg if he has not been to Europe，he cant have been to France.第83页/共98页844 X presupposes(预设)YEg X.Johns bike needs repairing Y John has a bike.X The Queen of England is old.Y England has a Queen.Truth condition：If X is T，Y must be

48、T 第84页/共98页85If X is false，Y is still TEg.If johns bike doesnt need repairing，he still has a bike.If Y is T，X is either T or F.Eg If John has a bike，it may or may not need repairing.If Y is F，no truth value can be saidEg If John doesnt have a bike，nothing can be said about whether his bike needs rep

49、airing or not第85页/共98页86Proposition:a statement,with a truth value(true or false),egThe earth is flat.The earth goes around the sun.All teachers are female.第86页/共98页879.1 Logical relationsNot/:P And:PQOr:PQIf then:PQEquals to :P Q第87页/共98页88Truth value:Not 第88页/共98页89Truth value:And 第89页/共98页90Truth

50、 value:Or:PQ第90页/共98页91Truth value:Ifthen 第91页/共98页92Truth value:Equals to 第92页/共98页939.2 Predicate LogicArgument(主目)and Predicate(谓词)John runs.runs(John)or R(j)John loves Mary.loves(John,Mary)or L(j,m)John gave Mary a book.gave(John,Mary,book)or G(j,m,b)第93页/共98页94One-place predicate一元谓词:runTwo-pla