高中英语写作系列---句子的拓展和句子的有效讲义.doc

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1、句子的扩展(Sentence Development)写作初学者往往善于写较简单的句子，这类句子简短有力，但内涵往往较少。英语段落和篇章写作中经常是就一个话题展开叙述，学习者应将长短句穿插，灵活使用。较长的句子能够起到充实内容、展开说理、使文章逻辑严密的作用。所以了解并应用句子扩展的知识非常重要。扩展句子常用的方法有添加法、并列法和从属法。一、添加法添加法即是对简单句通过添加修饰词或短语进行扩展，这些添加成分在句中主要作定语或状语等成分，使句子内容更加充实具体。1.添加词汇(形容词，副词)例：She gave me a gift.她送我了一个礼物。She gave me a beautiful

2、 gift.她送我了一个漂亮的礼物。I agreed with him.我同意他的看法。Reluctantly, I agreed with him.我勉强同意他的看法。2.添加短语(不定式短语，分词短语，介词短语)例：It took us three months.花了我们三个月时间。It took us three months to finish the project.花了我们三个月时间完成这个项目。Li Ming turned on the TV.李明打开电视。Having finished his homework, Li Ming turned on the TV.写完作业后，李

3、明打开电视。I read many English books.我读了很多英语书。I read many English books for the purpose of improving my English level.为了提高我的英语水平，我读了很多英语书。二、并列法用并列法扩展句子常用两种方法，一是运用平行结构来添加并列成分；二是把两个或两个以上的简单句使用并列连词或连接副词连在一起，构成并列句。1.添加并列成分例：The purposes of writing are to inform, to entertain and to persuade.写作的目的是传递信息、提供娱乐和说

4、服读者。2.构成并列句例：The news made the lady sad.这个消息让这位女士难过。Her son failed in the National College Entrance Examination, so the news made the lady sad.儿子高考落榜的消息让这位女士难过。三、从属法把两个或两个以上地位不同等重要的句子用主句加从句的方式连接起来，构成一个复合句，这种扩展句子的方法就是从属法。从属法常使用名词性从句、定语从句和状语从句进行扩展。例：What a teacher needs is an alert mind.教师需要敏捷的思维。Than

5、ksgiving,which falls on the fourth Thursday of November is one of the biggest American holidays.感恩节，十一月的第四个星期四，是美国最大的节日之一。Xiao Ming went on to study at the Northwest University after he finished his secondary education.小明中学毕业后，到西北大学继续他的学业。百宝箱比较英汉句子扩展方式的不同语言的差异，不仅表现在符号上，而且表现在运用这些符号来描述人类活动的句式结构上。其特征是英

6、文为树式结构，而中文为竹式结构。前者在句式上会强调主干的作用，然后辅以枝桠。英汉句子主谓之间的句法关系差别很大，理解上述差异有助于更好地用目标语遣词造句。在本节中我们介绍了英语扩展句子的方法，下面我们一起看一看汉语扩展句子的方法。1.延伸式扩展延伸式扩展短语的第一层构成成分之间的关系是平等并列的，没有主次之分。属于这种扩展形式的主要有三种：(1)联合短语的扩展例：假山，喷泉和正在开放的三角梅。他没念书，他打球了。(2)复指短语的扩展例：我国工人阶级的先锋战士，大庆油田的英雄代表，铁人王进喜同志。我们唯一值得恐惧的就是恐惧本身会使我们由后退转向前进所需的努力化为乌有。(3)连动短语的扩展查完病房

7、回家躺下睡觉。我吃早点，买报纸，坐汽车，进办公室，接电话，喝茶。2. 连环式扩展例：叫闫土闫土坐叫闫土坐。接着，他继续设想，鸡又生鸡，用鸡卖钱，钱买母牛，母牛繁殖，卖牛得钱，用钱放债3.加合式扩展例：非常困难的处境。很爱很爱你。有效的句子(Effective Sentence)一个句子想要有效地起到陈述事实、表达思想的作用，并且和语篇中的其他句子组成合乎逻辑的整体，就必须具备清晰性、统一性、连贯性、强调性和多样性这几个特点。一、清晰性句子的清晰性是指句子表达的信息清晰、具体，不会产生歧义。歧义一般可分为语音歧义、语义歧义和句法歧义，语音歧义指因单词发音相同或相似造成的歧义，在写作中我们主要注重

8、避免后两种歧义，即语义歧义和句法歧义。1.语义歧义语义歧义指由于人们对句子中某些词或短语有不同的理解而造成的歧义。这种歧义主要有三类原因造成：一是由同形同音异义词和多义短语引起的；二是由代词指代不明引起的；三是由名词所有格引起的。(1)同形同音异义词引起的歧义例：Professor Johnson married Joyce.由于“marry”一词可以理解为：“和结婚”，“把嫁出去”或者“做的证婚人”，所以这句话有三个版本的译文：约翰逊教授和乔伊斯结婚了。约翰逊教授把乔伊斯嫁出去了。约翰逊教授为乔伊斯做证婚人。要避免这类句子歧义，我们需要在句子中增加语境表达。本句可以改成：Professor

9、Johnson married Joyce, who was his beloved daughter.约翰逊教授把他心爱的女儿乔伊斯嫁出去了。(2)多义短语引起的歧义例：The members of the organization have come out.“come out”一词有多种含义。当人做主语时，其意义主要是宣布赞成或反对以及公开同性恋身份。所以这句话有两个版本的译文：这个组织的成员宣布赞成(或反对)某事。这个组织的成员公开同性恋身份。为避免多义短语引起的歧义，我们依旧需要在句子中增加信息，使句意明确。这句话可以改成：The members of the organizatio

10、n have come out against the test.这个组织的成员已经宣布反对这项测试。或者改成：The members of the organization have come out as gays.这个组织的成员已经公开同性恋的身份。(3)代词指代不明引起的歧义例：Smith and Thomas cannot be good friendsbecause he is very ill-tempered.本句中的he可能指Smith，也可能指Thomas。为避免多义短语引起的歧义，我们需要明确代词的指代对象。这句话可以改成：Smith and Thomas cannot

11、be good friendsbecause Thomas is very ill-tempered.或者改成：Smith and Thomas cannot be good friendsbecause the latter is very ill-tempered.(4)名词所有格引起的歧义例：The memory of Uncle Tom was interesting.由于介词of可以引出所有者也可以引出对象或者内容，所以这句话有两个版本的译文：汤姆叔叔的回忆很有趣。回忆汤姆叔叔是很有趣的事。为避免名词所有格引起的歧义，我们仍需要在句子中增加信息，使句意明确。这句话可以改成：Uncle

12、 Tom is a comedian; the memory of him was interesting.汤姆叔叔是个喜剧演员，回忆他是很有趣的事。2. 句法歧义句法歧义是指从句法结构的角度来分析一个句子存在着一种以上的解释的现象。(1)形容词修饰关系不明引起的歧义这种歧义主要体现在以下三个结构中。 more + adj.+ n.在这一结构中，more可能修饰形容词，也可能修饰名词。例：We need more scientific evidence.这句话可以理解为：我们需要更具科学性的证据。也可以理解为：我们需要更多科学的证据。2 adj.+ n.+ n.在这一结构中，形容词可以与前一个

13、名词构成修饰语，修饰后一个名词；而后两个名词也可以构成一个名词短语由形容词修饰。例：The owner of the coin showed his appreciation tothe old coin expert.这句话可以理解为：这枚钱币的主人表达了他对这个古币专家的谢意。也可以理解为：这枚钱币的主人表达了他对这个年长的钱币专家的谢意。3 adi.+ n.+ and + n.在这个结构中，形容词可以只修饰前一个名词，也可以同时修饰两个名词。例：Edison is the associate editor and Professor of our university.这句话可以理解为：

14、爱迪生是我们大学的副主编和正教授。也可以理解为：爱迪生是我们大学的副主编和副教授。(2)由省略造成的歧义比较结构的简略式常常引起句法歧义例：Grandma loves me more than you.这句话可以理解为：Grandma loves me more than she loves you.也可以理解为：Grandma loves me more than you love me.一些简化的并列结构也可能产生歧义。例：Nick thought Edgar went to China and Joyce did too.这句话可以理解为：Nick thought Edgar went

15、to China and Joyce thought so too.也可以理解为：Nick thought Edgar went to China and Joyce went to China too.(3)由ing形式引起的句法歧义英语中的ing形式与动词原形结合，可构成现在分词或动名词。在缺乏上下文或语境情况下，有时很难判断v+ing形式是现在分词还是动名词，这就引起了歧义。例：Visiting scholars can be interesting.这句话可以理解为：拜访学者们会很有趣。也可以理解为：访问学者们会很有趣。(4)英语否定句引起的歧义英语中比较常见的是由否定范围引起的歧义。

16、英语的否定范围包括两种不同的情况：a)否定范围从否定词开始到句末的修饰性状语之前结束；b)否定范围从否定词起一直延伸到句末。例：Danny didnt marry Susan because she was rich.这句话可以理解为：Susan was rich so Danny didnt marry Susan.当because引导的原因状语从句包括在否定范围之内时，这句话也可以理解为：Danny married Susan, but the reason is not that Susan was rich.二、统一性句子的统一性指的是无论句子长短，是否为简单句或复合句、都应做到主次分

17、明、前后连贯、结构严谨、关系一致、语序正确。句子的统一性要求句子的语义紧密联系，能够表达一个完整的意思。句子常见的不统一主要表现在以下几个方面：1. 语义不统一语义不统一指句子中两个或者两个以上的意思在逻辑上毫无关系。例：Jasmine is a responsible sister and her brother was crying.这两句在语义上没有必然的联系。2.逻辑不统一如果将两个完全不同的思想置于同一句中，用并列关系或从属关系表示，则完全破坏了句子的逻辑统一性。例：He finished his homework because he lost his book report.丢失

18、读书报告和完成作业之间没有逻辑上的因果关系。3. 语态和时态不统一句子中平行动词所涉及的语态不一致或者动作发生的时间不符合逻辑关系。例：Peter writes well and three articles have been published by him in magazines.前后两句语态不一致使句子主题模糊。Nicolas has been working in Xian several years before he started teaching magic.前后两句时态发生矛盾。4. 形式上不统一形式上不统一包括主句和从句的主语单复数不统一，句子主谓不统一等。例：If o

19、ne wants to succeed, we must learn topersevere.主句和从句的主语单复数不统一。He like to go fishing every afternoon.主谓不统一。5. 语气不统一语气不统一指在英语写作中陈述语气、祈使语气和虚拟语气的混用。例：Put the magic ring on and the boy still cannot play magic.前一句是祈使语气，后一句是陈述语气，这说明作者对于不同语气的句子的功能掌握的不好。三、连贯性句子的连贯性指句子连接贯通，衔接自然。句子不论长短都应环环紧扣，符合语法、逻辑。我们尤其应在以下三个

20、方面加以注意：1. 平行结构平行结构指两个或两个以上意思相近或相对的、地位相当的成分。其中以下两点须加以注意。(1)使用相同的语法来表达具有相同功能的句子成分，可运用并列连词and，but或or等。例：To avoid rust, youd better not make the iron contact with water and to keep it clean all the time.(误)To avoid rust,youd better not make the iron contact with water and keep it clean all the time.(正)(

21、2)正确使用相关连词，如bothand,notbut,not onlybut also等。例：The place was not only cold, but also it is damp.(误)The place was not only cold, but also damp.(正)2. 句子的主语与谓语在意义上必须有关联例：An advantage of both the city and the village would be a good place to live.(误)A town that can offer the best qualities of both city

22、and village is a good place to live.(正)3.避免悬垂结构所谓悬垂，就是说修饰词不能在逻辑上修饰句子中要修饰的短语或分句。例：To get ready for the examination, all the courses must be reviewed.(误)To get ready for the examination, I must review all the courses.(正)四、强调性句子中、段落中和篇章中，时常有需要强调的部分。根据需要，我们采用部分强调或者整句强调。可以用来强调的方式有：短句、倒装句、句子片断、排比结构、圆周句、祈使

23、句、感叹句、重复等。1. 部分强调(1)句尾强调如果要强调句子中的某个词语或者短语，可以把它放在句子的开头或者结尾。例：We saw in Zhang Lu, quietness and coldness, an excellent interpreter.我们在张璐身上看到了平静和冷静，一位优秀的翻译员。Chinas booming smart phone market overtook the United States as the worlds largest last year.(弱)Last year, Chinas booming smart phone market overt

24、ook the United States as the worlds largest.(强)去年，中国不断壮大的智能手机市场超过美国，成为世界上最大的智能机市场。(2)倒装强调倒装强调往往是通过倒装句将所要强调的句子成分放在句首来达到强调的目的。例：Seldom have I seen her recently.(强调状语)我最近很少看到她。On the hill stood a little cottage that contained heaps of hay.(强调状语)山上立着几个装着草垛的小房子。Increasingly enthusiastic he was about musi

25、c.(强调表语)他越来越热衷于音乐。(3)重复强调重复同一个词或者用不同的词重复同一个意思，可以作为部分强调的一种方法。例：The friendship among us will last from generation to generation.我们之间的友谊会代代相传。In the eleventh hour of the eleventh grade, I suddenly realized the role of my teacher.在中学最后一学年的最后时刻，我突然意识到了老师的作用。(4)强调句型强调句型结构：It+is/was+代词/名词/名词性从句/形容词/状语+that

26、/who/whom/which/whose+句子。例：It is he who takes me home.是他带我回家的。It was yesterday that she bought a gift for me.她给我买礼物是在昨天。2.整句强调(1)短句长句表达逻辑更严密，但短句比长句表达更有力。例：Just do it.(体育用品广告词)Nothing is impossible.(体育用品广告词)Time is what you make of it.(手表广告词)Obey your thirst.(饮料广告词)Money is not everything. Theres Mas

27、terCard &Visa.(信用卡广告词)(2)不完整句不完整句的构成往往只是句子中的某一个成分。例：Its a success after years of preparation. A reward they deserve.(3)倒装句这种特别的语序能吸引读者注意。例：He was a very smart merchant, I heard.(4)感叹句感叹句从语气上使句意得到强调。例：How hard the workers are working!How disappointed!(句末省略she is)(5)反问句反问句虽问不答，但答案又蕴涵其中，往往语气强烈，给读者以强烈的震

28、撼，引起共鸣，能够启发读者深入思考。例：We have so much work to do,how can I leave at this moment?(6)重复词或者短语的句子例：Our government is the government of the people, by the people, for the people.我们的政府是民有、民治、民享的政府。五、多样性1. 句式多样性对于一篇好文章而言，句式的多样性是不可或缺的。主动式和被动式的灵活使用，肯定句和否定句的交错出现，正常语序和倒装语序的适时采用以及简单句、并列句的错杂使用都能体现出作者的语言功力，但我们需记住多样

29、句式选择的前提是它符合主题思想表达的需要。(1)主动式与被动式出于突出受事者，表达文章客观性或者出于承上启下、关联上下文的目的，英语中常使用被动式。例：Police said they caught the murderer, they said that they will hang him.The murderer was caught yesterday, and it is said that he will be hanged.(2)肯定式与否定式当表达同样的句意时，我们可以选择以肯定式或者以否定式来呈现。有些肯定形式、否定意义的句子的语气和强调意义比普通的否定句更强。例：I don

30、t want to see him.He is the last person I want to see.He didnt win the favor of his parents-in-law. He failed to win the favor of his parents-in-law.(3)正常语序与倒装语序正常语序可以用于进行客观的陈述或者描述，而倒装语序往往能表达较强烈的情感。例：I did not realize the significance of PM 2.5 data until the heavy smog came to affect my lung.Not un

31、til the heavy smog came to affect my lung did I realize the significance of PM 2.5 data.(4)简单句、并列句、主从复合句简单句简明扼要，切中要害；并列句有节奏感，突出并列和对比结构，而主从复合句逻辑严密，内容丰富。我们应根据句式的特色适时选用。例：I agree with the latter.(简单句)Give him an inch and he will take a yard.(并列句)得寸进尺。The boy was on his first overseas study, so that he

32、felt very nervous.(主从复合句)简单句、并列句、主从复合句如果能在句中进行交叉使用，会使文章更有节奏感，意义上也更丰富，逻辑上更严密。例：Just imagine the beautiful surroundings if we make our cities greener. Green trees line the streets. Aclean river winds through the city,in which a lot of fishes abound. 4On the one side stand rows of willow trees.5 On the

33、 other side lies a stretch of grassland sprinkled with many yellow and red flowers.这段文字中有长句15.也有短句和、一长一短，抑扬顿挫，有节奏感，使文章流畅自然，生动活泼。2. 句子开头多样性根据文章的需要，句子可以用不同性质的词或者短语开头。例：Population,resources and environment,the factors are important to the local economics.(同位语开头)Write a thank you letter, I can.(行为动词作为含有

34、情态动词句子的开头)My suggestion, you may not take, but my love, you must understand.(名词作宾语开头)In books are embalmed the greatest thoughts of all ages.(介词短语作地点状语开头)With globalization have come many problems.(介词短语作伴随状语开头)Well or sick, calm or worried,Dick is always restrained in his expression.(形容词作状语开头)Pleasa

35、ntly will he take your advice.(副词作方式状语开头)To take care of the disabled mother, he took her with him when he went to college.(动词不定式作目的状语开头)3. 状语多样性状语是英语句子成分中种类和变化较多的一个，状语的多样性可以是增加英语语言多样性的一个重要部分。例：Stepping carelessly off the pavement,he was knocked down by the bus.他不小心离开了人行道，被公共汽车撞倒了。(分词做状语)Born and br

36、ed in the countryside, he wasbewildered by the big city.他生长在乡下，对这座大城市感到迷惑。(分词做状语)Since her mother had fallen ill,the girl had to do the housework by herself.母亲生病了，这女孩得自己做家务。(从句做状语)From a birds eye view, we can see the city is like achessboard.(介词短语做状语)鸟瞰这座城市，我们发现它就像一个棋盘。4. 连接词多样性在作文中使用过多简单句是很多人在刚开始的

37、时候经常出现的情况，这使文章成了简单句堆砌。即便在运用复合句时，时常选择so，and，then，but,or，however等几个固定的连接词。这往往达不到丰富表达方式的目的，相反，句子结构显得松散、呆板。为了避免这种现象，我们可以通过使用种类更多，等级更高的连接词，尤其是一些表示从属关系的连接词，如who, which,that,because, since, although, after, as, before, when, whenever,if,unless as if等，不仅能够丰富句型，而且还能够把思想表达得更清楚，结构更紧凑，句意更连贯。例：Helen is sure to g

38、et her pay.It is due to her.Why does she complain?此句用了三个简单句，句式显得乏味，说明作者的语言功底薄弱。如果使用了连接词since表示让步关系“既然”，语义就会更连贯，语言也会更流畅。Why does Helen complain since she is sure to get the pay due to her?再如：Every year, there are millions of newly-graduated students. They want to find jobs. These jobs can pay them a lot of money. However, that is impossible.这段文字用简单句表达，它们之间内在的逻辑关系含糊不清，意思支离破碎。如果使用连接词，将单句与其前后合并，形成主次关系，就把一个比较复杂的内容和关系表达得层次清楚、结构严谨。Every year, millions of newly-graduated students want to find jobs that can pay them a lot of money, which is impossible though.25