高中英语写作系列---英语短文的构成讲义.doc

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1、英语短文的构成(Structure of English Essays)一篇结构完整的英语短文一般由三部分构成，即引言段、正文和结尾段。一、引言段(Introductory Paragraph)在短文写作中，引言段通常是十分简洁的。它可以是简单的一个主题句，也可以包含其它额外的一些句子。好的引言段不仅能够引人入胜，激起读者对文章内容的兴趣或好奇心，同时也可提供一些有关主题的背景信息，并最终阐明文章的主题。文章的引言段的写法多种多样，我们应该根据文章的主题，写作目的以及读者对象等因素来选择适当的方法。引言段常见的写作类型有以下几种：前开门见山，点明主题President Bush on Satu

2、rday praised Minnesota high school security guard Derrick Brun for saving countless students by bravely confronting the teenage gunman who shot and killed him.此例仅用了一句话就点明了主题。读者通过阅读这段话便可以清楚地了解到整篇文章的主要内容。这种开篇方法开门见山，简单明了，让读者一目了然。2. 引经据典，名言谚语例：British politician Winston Churchill once said,“Every day yo

3、u may make progress. Every step may be fruitful.Yet there will stretch out before you an ever- lengthening, ever-ascending, ever-improving path. You know you will never get to the end of the journey. But this,so far from discouraging, only adds to the joy and glory of the climb.”To my mind, persever

4、ance is the most important thing in our study.此例以著名的英国首相温斯顿丘吉尔的名言总领全文，并在名言后引出了文章的主题，即坚持不懈在学习中的重要性。这种写法能够引人入胜，激起读者对文章内容的兴趣或好奇心。3.介绍背景，引出主题例：In the College of Veterinary Medicine andEngineering, for example, nearly one-third of the teaching faculty may retire by the year 2004.In the College of Educati

5、on, more than a third of theprofessors are 55 years old and older. The largest turnover for a single department is projected to be in geology. More than half of its faculty this year are inthe age group that will retire at the millennium, says Ron Downey of K-States Office of Institutional Research

6、and Analysis.The graying of K-States faculty is not unique.A Regents report shows approximately 27 percent of the faculty at the six state universities will retire by the end of this decade, creating a shortage of senior faculty.此例通过介绍背景来引出主题。文章通过对背景的介绍引出了堪萨斯州大学教职工老龄化的问题。这是一种带领读者对问题进行进一步讨论的开篇模式。这种方法

7、的缺点在于有时可能会让读者感到无聊，很难引起读者的兴趣。在使用这种方法时要根据实际情况慎重进行选择。4. 个人经历，传奇故事例：Mike Cantlon remembers coming across his first auction ten years ago while cruising the back roads of Wisconsin.He parked his car and wandered into the crowd, toward the auctioneers singsong chant and wafting smell of barbecued sandwich

8、es. Hours later, Cantlon emerged lugging a $22 beam drill-forconstructing post-and-beam barns and a passion for auctions that has clung like a cockle-bur on an old saddle blanket. “Its an addiction,”says Cantlon, a financial planner and one of the growing number of auction fanatics f有8000名儿童死于事故。作者通

9、过客观的统计数字来增加文章的可信度，同时引起读者的关注并引出下文。5. 提出问题，引起注意例：Should people be encouraged to try new things?“Of course!one may likely answer.But what if heroin or LSD is new to someone? Why is it all right to taste new foods and to visit new places, but not to try out drugs? It is precisely this problem that is co

10、nfusing young people who have been encouraged by their parents to experience all that life has to offer. To end this confusion, society must build a convincing case against experimenting with drugs.此例以具有争议性的问题开头。这种方法可以激起读者的好奇心，从而进一步阅读文章，去寻找问题的答案。二、正文(Main Body)正文是文章的主体，也是一篇文章的核心，一般由一个以上的段落组成。每个段落的主题

11、应该和文章引言段的中心主题相呼应，并保持文章的整体性和连贯性。正文部分也就是对每个段落主题的论证过程。例：Learning,Chinese-styleHoward GardnerFor a month in the spring of 1987, my wife Ellen and I lived in the bustling eastern Chinese city of Nanjing with our 18-month-old son Benjamin while studying arts education in Chinese kindergartens and elementa

12、ry schools. But one of the most telling lessons Ellen and I got in the difference between Chinese and American ideas of education came not in theclassroom but in the lobby of the Jinling Hotel where we stayed in Nanjing.The key to our room was attached to a large plastic block with the room number o

13、n it. When leaving the hotel, a guest was encouraged to turn in the key, either by handing it to an attendant or by dropping it through a slot into a box. Because the key slot was narrow, the key had to be positioned carefully to fitinto it.Benjamin loved to carry the key around, shaking it vigorous

14、ly.He also liked to try to place it into the slot. Because of his tender age and incompleteunderstanding of the need to position the key just so,he would usually fail. Benjamin was not bothered in the least. He probably got as much pleasure out of the sound of the key made as he did those few times

15、when the key actually found its way into the slot.Now both Ellen and I were perfectly happy to allow Benjamin to bang the key near the key slot. His exploratory behaviour seemed harmless enough.But I soon observed an interesting phenomenon.Any Chinese staff member nearby would come over to watch Ben

16、jamin and, noting his lack of initial success, attempt to assist. He or she would hold ontoBenjamins hand and, gently but firmly, guide it directly toward the slot, reposition it as necessary, and help him to insert it.The “teacher would then smilesomewhat expectantly at Ellen or me, as if awaiting

17、a thank you and on occasion would frown slightly, as if considering us to be neglecting our parental duties. I soon realized that this incident was directly relevant to our assigned tasks in China: to investigate the ways of early childhood education (especially in the arts, and to throw light on Ch

18、inese attitudes toward creativity. And so before long I began to introduce the key-slot anecdote into my discussions with Chinese educators.Two Different Ways to LearnWith a few exceptions my Chinese colleagues displayed the same attitude as the staff at the Jinling Hotel. Since adults know how to p

19、lace the key in the key slot,which is the ultimate purpose of approaching the slot, and since the child is neither old enough nor clever enough to realize the desired action on his own, what possible gain is achieved by having him struggle? He may well get frustrated and angry certainly not a desira

20、ble outcome. Why not show him what to do? He will be happy, he will learn how to accomplish the tasksooner, and then he can proceed to more complex activities, like opening the door or asking for the key both of which accomplishments can (and should) in due course be model-led for him as well.We lis

21、tened to such explanations sympathetically and explained that, first of all, we did not much care whether Benjamin succeeded in inserting the key into the slot.He was having a good time and was exploring, two activities that did matter to us. But the critical point was that, in the process,we were t

22、rying to teach Benjamin that one can solve a problem effectively by oneself.Such self-reliance is a principal value of child rearing in middle class America. So long as the child is shown exactly how to do something whether it be placing a key in a key slot,drawing a hen of making up for a misdeed h

23、e is less likely to figure out himself how to accomplish such a task. And, more generally, he is less likely to view life-as Americans do-as a series of situations in which one has to learn to think for oneself, to solve problems in ones own and even to discover new problems for which creative solut

24、ions are wanted.Teaching By Holding His HandIn retrospect, it became clear to me that this incident was indeed key and key in more than one sense. It pointed to important differences in the educational and artistic practices in our two countries. When our well-intention-ed Chinese observers came to

25、Benjamins rescue, they did not simply push his hand down clumsily or uncertainly,as I might have done. Instead, they guided him with extreme facility and gentleness in precisely the desired direction. I came to realize that these Chinese were not just molding and shaping Benjamins performance in any

26、 old manner: In the best Chinese tradition, they were ba zhe shoujiao“teaching by holding his hand so much so that he would happily come back for more.The idea that leaning should take place bycontinual careful shaping and molding applies equally to the arts.Watching children at work in a classrooms

27、etting we were astonished by their facility. Children as young as 5 or 6 were painting flowers, fish and animals with the skill and confidence of an adult; calligraphers 9 and 10 years old were producing works that could have been displayed in a museum. In a visit to the homes of two of the young ar

28、tists,we learned from their parents that they worked in perfecting their craft for several hours a day.Creativity First?In terms of attitudes to creativity there seems to be a reversal of priorities: young Westerners making their boldest departures first and then gradually mastering the tradition; a

29、nd young Chinese being almost inseparable from the tradition, but, over time, possibly evolving to a point equally original.One way of summarizing the American position is to state that we value originality and independence more than the Chinese do. The contrast between our two cultures can also be

30、seen in terms of the fears we both harbour. Chinese teachers are fearful that if skills are not acquired early, they may never beacquired;there is, in the other hand, no comparable hurry to promote creativity. American educators fear that unless creativity has been acquired early, it may never emerg

31、e; on the other hand, skills can be picked up later.However, I do not want to overstate my case. There is enormous creativity to be found in Chinese scientific,technological and artistic innovations past and present. And there is a danger of exaggerating creative breakthroughs in the West.When anyin

32、novation is examined closely, its reliance on previous achievements is all too apparent (the “standing on the shoulders of giantsphenomenon).But assuming that the contrast I have developed is valid, and that the fostering of skills and creativity are both worthwhile goals, the important question bec

33、omes this:Can we gather,from the Chinese and American extremes, a superior way to approach education, perhaps striking a better balance betweenthe poles of creativity and basic skills?这篇文章的主题是我们能否在中西方不同的教育模式中找到一个结合点，从而可以吸取不同文化的精髓，取长补短。在本章中，我们已经了解到在通常情况下一篇文章可以分为三个部分：用于引出主题的引言段；对主题详细阐述的正文；结尾段。在引言段里，作者

34、通过自己的亲身经历引出文章主题，增强了文章的说服力。在正文中，作者使用三个副标题来清晰有序地阐述主题。此外，作者还使用了对比和比较的写作手法对文章主题进行了阐述。例如：在比较中西方对待创造力和基本技能的不同态度时，作者提到了中国人注重早期培养孩子的基本技能，创造力可以在以后的时间里逐渐发展，而美国人的观点则恰恰相反。最后，作者以一个建议性的问句来结束全文，使整篇文章结构紧凑、条理清晰。三、结尾段(Conclusion)结尾段主要是归纳概括全文，重申主题，是整篇文章的要点总结。结尾段一般不再引入新的内容或观点，可以用与引言段中的主题语句不同的表达方式来重述主题，从而达到对主题的深化，引起读者对文

35、章主题的回味和思考。与引言段一样，结尾段也有很多写作手法可以采用。通常要根据文章的写作目的、读者对象、以及文章的类型和风格而定。常见的写作类型有以下几种：1.总结全文，重述主题，深化中心思想例：To summarize, our American system of higher education confers three benefits upon its students: it prepares them for a profession, it enables them to achieve a high standard of living, and it helps them

36、to develop an appreciation of our cultural heritage. In addition, it supplies our nation with highly trained persons for business, industry, public service, and the learned professions, and it produces those broadly educated persons who却有重述主题、深化中心思想的优点。2.提出发人深省的问题，引起读者的思考例：Without doubt, the present

37、 faculty disciplinary committee should be replaced by a student court.An overwhelming majority of the student body favors such a change. Why,then are the officials of this school reluctant to take action? Are they unaware of the advantages of a student court system? Or are they simply indifferent to

38、 student opinion?此例中，作者对主题进行深入讨论后，提出一些发人深省的问题，引起读者的进一步思考。这种结尾方式针对一些“问题”主题特别有效，例如犯罪、毒品、政府腐败、不道德的商业行为、环境污染、种族问题及战争等。引迷他人评论或名人名言，再次强调主题Farbers dream will not be easy to realize. But it may not be impossible, either. Fortune magazine, in a recent article documenting the many problems in using solar ener

39、gy, concluded that “If costs could bebrought down, the move to solar energy just might grow into the biggest economic development since the automobile revolution.”Outright enthusiasts have no such reservations. “There are no ifs involved with solar energy anymore,”says Professor Y.B. Sofdari, of Bar

40、dley University. “Its merely a question of when.”此例通过引用财富杂志以及Y.B.Sofdari教授的话支持作者的观点，即对太阳能的利用将会成为最有潜力的经济发展方向。这种通过引用书籍、杂志以及名人名言等再次强调主题的结尾方式也经常在写作中使用。4. 围绕主题提出希望或建议例：But assuming that the contrast I have developed is valid, and that the fostering of skills and creativity are both worthwhile goals, the

41、important questionbecomes this: Can we gather,from the Chinese and American extremes, a superior way to approach education, perhaps striking a better balance betweenthe poles of creativity and basic skills?此例中，作者围绕我们能否在中西方不同的教育方式中找到一个结合点的主题来提出希望和建议。以问句的形式结束全文，来引起读者的思考。5.对文章主题进行分析，从而得出结论或展望前景例：The pr

42、evailing ignorance of basic auto mechanics on Americas part is indeed appalling. However, in spite of the current situation, there is hope on the horizon. The number of people showing interest in car maintenance has been increasing at a steady rate over the past few years. Having grown tired and fru

43、strated by the excessive amount of money they have had to spend on shops and auto mechanics,they have come to realize that car maintenance is much more essential than they had thought. If this trend continues in America, we can hopefully predict the coming of an age where dependence upon others for

44、“car smartswill finally become obsolete.有时，文章也常用预测发展前景的方法来结尾。例如，如果正文讨论激光的发展，作者或许会以展望激光用于制造武器的未来结束全文。这种结尾方法可以进一步深化文章的中心思想。本段清楚地分析了文章的主题并得出结论，预测了未来的前景，即汽车的保养比人们想象中的更为重要。四、衔接(Coherence)短文写作不是简单的把和主题有关的句子堆砌在一起，而是要把能表达文章主题的、意义相关的句子或段落按照一定的逻辑顺序，如时间、空间、主次等，连接在一起，构成语义连贯，表达清楚的文章。要做到这一点，除了学会使用关联词外，还应该注意运用其他衔接

45、方法来承上启下、前后照应，如使用平行结构、过渡句或重复关键词等。英语短文写作通常采用三段式的布局方式，每段由一个主题句和若干扩展句组成，有时也可含引导句或结尾句。具体布局可参照下表：【英语短文布局】百宝箱文稿格式一、题目题目应写在文章第一行的中间，题目的第一个和最后一个词的首字母应该大写，中间的词除了冠词、并列连词、介词和不定式to之外，首字母也要大写。题目如果是陈述句，不加句号；如果是疑问句，应加问号。题目中引用的词语或文章标题，应加引号。题目中若含有书名或报纸杂志的名字，则需使用斜体或下划线标明。二、缩进和移行文章每段的开头都应该缩进，一般留出四到五个字母的空白即可。一行写完时就需要移行，

46、移行的基本原则是按照音节把单词断开，但要注意几点：单音节词不能断开；不要把一个单词的首字母或尾字母断开写在行末或行首，即使该字母能构成一个音节；不要把只有两个字母的音节写在行首；人名和地名一般不分开；带有连字符的复合词只能在连字符处断开；双音节有重复的辅音字母时，在这两个字母间断开；一页的最后一个词不要移行，应把整个词语写在下一页；把词断开时应避免造成误解；表示一个词移行的连字符应打在上一行的末尾，而不能写在下一行的开始。三、标点标点符号的用法除了参照本书第四章的内容之外，还要注意在一行的开端不可使用逗号、句号、分号、冒号、问号和感叹号，如果需要出现这些标点符号，则应放置于上一行的末尾。但是括号和引号的前一半不能放在行尾。四、大写大写字母主要用于题目中、句子的开头以及专有名词。五、书法如果用手写的话，就需要注意书写清楚、工整、便于别人阅读。大写字母要稍大于小写字母，字母书写要规范、饱满、清晰。要注意一格字母(如a，o，u)、两格字母(如b.h、g)和三格字母(f)在书写时的比例大小。如要增加一个词，应该加在已写文字的上面，不要加在下面，还应用符号清楚标明位置。标点符号的书写要规范、清楚，逗号和句号要分清，句号要注意是实心点。18