语言学习与语言教学原则第十一章.ppt

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1、Chapter11TheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition-ZhangLi09 级外国语言学及应用语言学研IntroductionTaxonomies,Hypotheses,andModelSomeCurrentTheoriesandModelsThebelievinganddoubtinggamesFromTheorytoPracticeIntuition:TheSearchforrelevanceOutonaLimb:TheEcologyofLanguageAcquisitionI.IntroductionQ1.Whatissecondlanguageacqu

2、isition?Q2.Istheresuchaunifiedtheory?SecondLanguageAcquisitionisasubsetofgeneralhumanlearningandinvolvescognitivevariations.Itiscloselyrelatedtoonespersonhoodandisinterwovenwithsecondculturelearning.No.Lightbown(1985)Yorio(1976)taxonomy11statementsEvaluationHowevervagueandgeneraltheyare,theyconstitu

3、teaframeworkforatheoryofSLA.10statementsEvaluationLightbownslistofgeneralizationisinterestingandhassomeapplicationstoclassroompractices.butthelist,likethe11previousitems,isobviouslyincomplete.II.Taxonomies,Hypotheses,andModelsIII.KrashensInputHypothesisMclaughlinsAttention-ProcessingModelBialystoksA

4、nalysis/AutomaticityModelVariabilityModelssome current theories and modelsIntroduceaboutKrashensInputHypothesis Different names Monitor Model Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Input Hypothesis.KrashensTheoryTheMonitorHypothesis Consciouslearning.canonlybeusedasaMonitororaneditor(Krashen&Terrell1983).T

5、heAcquisition/LearningHypothesisAdultshavetwodistinctivewaysofdevelopingcompetencesinsecondlanguages.acquisition,thatisbyusinglanguageforrealcommunication.learning“knowingabout”language(Krashen&Terrell1983).TheInputHypothesis Humansacquirelanguageinonlyoneway-byunderstandingmessagesorbyreceiving“com

6、prehensibleinput”.TheNaturalOrderHypothesisWeacquiretherulesoflanguageinapredictableorder.TheAffectiveFilterHypothesisAmentalblock,causedbyaffectivefactors.thatpreventsinputfromreachingthelanguageacquisitiondevice(Krashen,1985,p.100).EvidencefortheInputHypothesisi)Peoplespeaktochildrenacquiringtheir

7、firstlanguageinspecialwaysii)PeoplespeaktoL2learnersinspecialwaysiii)L2learnersoftengothroughaninitialSilentPeriodiv)Thecomparativesuccessofyoungerandolderlearnersreflectsprovisionofcomprehensibleinputv)ThemorecomprehensibleinputthegreatertheL2proficiencyvi)Lackofcomprehensibleinputdelayslanguageacq

8、uisitionvii)Teachingmethodsworkaccordingtotheextentthattheyusecomprehensibleinputviii)Immersionteachingissuccessfulbecauseitprovidescomprehensibleinputix)BilingualprogramssucceedtotheextenttheyprovidecomprehensibleinputContrasts Acquisition Learning implicit,subconscious explicit,conscious informal

9、situations formal situationsuses grammatical“feel”uses grammatical rules depends on attitude depends on aptitude stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of learning According to Krashen(1982),our conscious learning processes and our subconscious acquisition processes are mutually exclusi

10、ve:learning cannot“become”acquisition.This claim of“no interface”between acquisition and learning is used to strengthen the argument for recommending large doses of acquisition activity in the classroom,with only a very minor role assigned to the Monitor.CombinedModelofAcquisitionandProductionIt is

11、Krashens attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language.It is only concerned with acquisition,not learning.A major offshoot of the Monitor Model claims that condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understand input language that contains structure a bit beyond

12、his or her current level of competence”The InputHypothesis(i+1)Forexample,ifalearnerisatastagei,thenacquisitiontakesplacewhenhe/sheisexposedtoComprehensibleInputthatbelongstoleveli+1.DisputationFinally,itisimportanttonotethatthenotionofi+1isnothingnew.AthirddifficultyofkrashensinInputHypothesisisfou

13、ndinhisexplicitclaimthat“comprehensibleinputistheonlycausativevariableinSLA.”ASecondcriticismofkrashensviewaroseoutoftheclaimthatthereisnointerfacenooverlapbetweenacquisitionandlearning.First,BarryMclaughlinsharplycriticizedkrashensratherfuzzydistinctionbetweensubconscious(acquisition)andconscious(l

14、earning)processes.MclaughlinsAttention-ProcessingModelAttentiontoformalpropertiesoflanguageInformationprocessingControlledAutomaticFocal(CellA)Performancebasedonformalrulelearning(CellB)PerformanceinatestsituationPeripheral(CellC)Performancebasedonimplicitlearningoranalogiclearning(CellD)Performance

15、incommunicationsituationsControlledprocessesarecapacitylimitedandtemporary.Automaticprocessesarerelativelypermanent.whilemostcontrolledprocessesarefocal,some,likechildfirstlanguagelearningorthelearningofskillswithoutanyinstruction,canbeperipheral.similarly,mostautomaticprocessesareperipheral,butsome

16、canbefocal.Q.HowdoesMclaughlinsmodelapplytopracticalaspectsoflearningasecondlanguage?Controlled:new skill,Capacity limitedAutomatic:well-trained,practiced skill capacity is relatively unlimitedFocal intentional attentionA Grammatical explanation of a specific pointWord definitionCopy a written model

17、The first stages of“memorizing”a dialogPrefabricated patternsVarious discrete-point exercisesB“keeping an eye out”for somethingAdvances L2 learner focused on modals,clause formation,etc.Monitoring oneself while talking or writingScanningEditing,peer-editingPeripheral incidental attentionC Simple gre

18、etingsThe later stages of“memorizing”a dialogTPR/Natural ApproachNew L2 learner successfully completes a brief conversationD open-ended group work Rapid reading,skimmingFree writesNormal conversational exchanges of some lengthLanguageExposureOtherKnowledgeExplicitLinguisticknowledgeImplicitLinguisti

19、cknowledgeInputKnowledgeOutputTypeITypeIIRInferencingMonitoringInferencingInferencingFunctionalPracticingFormalPracticingFormalPracticingProcess StrategiesIntheexplicitcategoryarethefactsthatapersonknowsaboutlanguageandtheabilitytoarticulatethosefactsinsomeway.Implicitknowledgeisinformationthatisaut

20、omaticallyandspontaneouslyusedinlanguagetasks.processesareuniversalwhilestrategiesareoptionalandvaryacrossindividuals,aswehavealreadydefinedearlier.“R”istheresponsethatapersonmakestoanotherpersonuponreceivingsomesortoflinguisticmessage.TypeIresponsesarespontaneousTypeIIresponsesaretime-delayed.v Bia

21、lystokmodifiedherframeworkforconceptualizingSLA.Themodificationconsistedofhypothesizingatwo-dimensionalframeworkinwhichanalysisand automaticity caninteract,butheruseofthelattertermdiffersfromMclaughlins.Inherfirstfactor-analysis-mentalrepresentationscanbeeitherunanalyzedoranalyzed.Ontheotherhand,lea

22、rnersareovertlyawareofthestructureofanalyzedknowledge.Thedistinctionbetweenautomaticandnon-automaticprocessingreferstotherelativeaccessthelearnerhastotheknowledgeirrespectivelyofitsdegreeifanalysis.Knowledgethatcanberetrievedeasilyandquicklyisautomatic.Knowledgethattakestimeandefforttoretrieveisnon-

23、automatic.CriticismBialystoksmodelwasrecentlycriticizedformodelsbeyondtheirlimits,“thusgivingtheexplanationsaforcedair.”VariabilityModelsv OneofthemostinterestingcurrentdebatesinSLAtheorycentersontheextenttowhichthe variabilitymanifestedintheinter-languagecompetenceoflearnerscanbesystematicallyexpla

24、ined.v Theessenceoftheproblemisthatlearnerscananddoexhibitatremendousdegreeofvariationinthewaytheyspeak(andwrite)secondlanguages.ResearchersaboutInterlanguageVariationElaineTarones(1988)CapabilitycontinuumparadigmRodElliss(1986)variablecompetencemodelKevinGreg(1990)Hegrantedthatnon-systematicfreevar

25、iationandindividualvariationdoexistbutchosetofocusherresearchoncontextual variability.Hedrewamore“internal”pictureifthelearnerinhisvariablecompetencemodel.Ellishypothesizedastorehouseof“variableinter-languagerules”dependingonhowautomaticandhowanalyzedtherulesare.Hedrewasharpdistinctionbetweenplanned

26、andunplanneddiscourseinordertoexaminevariation.HequarreledwithbothTaronesandEllissrejectionofChomskys“homogeneouscompetenceparadigmIV.TheBelievingandDoubtingGamesv“doubtinggame”v“believinggame”vHeiscarefultoconcludehisessaywithanoteontheinterdependenceofthebelievinggameandthedoubtinggameHeconcludest

27、hathecanmakeawordmeansomethingifhechoosesto.PeterElbow(1973)HumptyHecontendedthatweneedtoturnsuchconceptionsupside-down,tolookattheotherendofthecontinuumandrecognizetheimportanceofwhathecalledthe“believinggame”.Mostscholarlytraditionsaretoomyopicallyinvolvedinwhathecalledthe“doubtinggame”oftruthseek

28、ing.DilemmainSLQResearchvOnetraditionisanomothetictraditionofempiricism,scientificmethodology,andprediction;thisisthebehavioristictraditionreferredtoinChapterOne.vOntheotherhand,ahermeneutictraditionprovidesuswithameansforinterpretationandunderstandinginwhichwedonotlookforabsolutelaws.Headoptedasimi

29、larpointofviewinrecommendingthatweseeboththe“art”andthe“science”ofSLAresearch.Hesuggestedthat“KrashensandMclaughlinsviewscanco-existasrealitysymbolizedintwodifferentways”Ochsner(1979)Schumann(1982)V.FromTheorytoPracticeAswelookbackoverthelast100yearsiflanguageteachingtherearesomerevolutionsapparenti

30、nthathistory.Q.Howmightthoseapproachesbedescribed?First,theyarecautiouslyeclectic.Second,ourcurrentapproachesdonotlooktothetraditionaldisciplines-linguistics,psychology,education-fordirectapplications,butratherforinsightsintolanguage,humanbehavior,andpedagogythatundergirdlanguageteachingpractices.Th

31、ird,currenttheories-inpracticearecharacterizedbyasubstantialbodyofresearchonSLAfromwhichwecanderiveenlightenedapproachestoteaching.Fourth,languagelearningandteachingarerecognizedaspersonalencounters.Finally,ourstockpileofresearchandpracticehasclearlydemonstratedhowcrucialitistofocusoncommunicationin

32、theclassroom.Havewe“arrived”?Surelynot.Asyoudevelopanenlightenedapproachtothelanguageclassroom,therearesomeimportantwarningsignalstoattendtoMarkClarkecautionedteacherstobeawareofthevarious“bandwagons”thattravelthroughourlanguageteachingprofession:the“latestword”,thetrendy,thefashionablemethods,mater

33、ials,andtechniqueswiththeircarnivalappeal.1.Extremistand;authoritarianinnature2.Dramaticandappealing;3.Sometimesstimulateyourethinkyourcurrentstance.VI.Intuition:TheSearchforRelevanceThereachfortherelevanceoftheoryhastakenteachersonmanyvariedandcircuitouspaths.Oneprinciplethatcanhelpyoutomakeintelli

34、gentchoicesintheuseofmethodsandclassroomtechniquesistheprincipleofintuition.Oneoftheimportantcharacteristicsofintuitionisitsnonverbalizability.Intuitioninvolvesacertainkindofrisk-taking.Thereisampleevidencethatgoodlanguageteachershavedevelopedgoodintuition.HowdoYou“learn”Intuition?First,youneedtoint

35、ernalizeessentialtheoreticalfoundationslikethosewehavebeengrapplingwiththroughoutthisbook.Second,thereisnosubstitutefortheexperienceofstandingonyourowntwofeetinthepresenceofreallearnersintherealworld.Intuitionsareformedatthecrossroadsofknowledgeandexperience.Athirdprincipleofintuitionlearningfollowsfromthesecond.youmustbeawillingrisk-takeryourself.VII.OutOnALimb:TheEcologyofLanguageAcquisition